1 Introduction

1.1 Terminology: Age and Date

1.2 Natural Radioactivity: The Physical Basis for Dating

1.3 Error: Precision and Accuracy

1.4 The Classification of the Quaternary

2 Materials

2.1 Volcanites

2.1.1 Basalt

2.1.2 Obsidian Flows

2.1.3 Tephra

2.1.4 Xenoliths and Baked Contacts

2.1.5 Polymetallic Sulfides

2.2 Impactites

2.2.1 Tektites

2.2.2 Impact Glass

2.2.3 Ejecta

2.3 Fault Breccia and Pseudotachylite

2.4 Fulgurite

2.5 Sediments

2.5.1 Loess

2.5.2 Sand (Aeolian)

2.5.3 Sand (Aquatic)

2.5.4 Alluvium

2.5.5 Colluvium and Talus

2.5.6 Limnic Sediments

2.5.7 Glacial Sediments

2.5.8 Archaeological Sediments

2.5.9 Calcareous Cave Deposits

2.5.10 Travertine

2.5.11 Deep-Sea Sediments

2.5.12 Marine Phosphorite

2.6 Weathering Products

2.6.1 Soils

2.6.2 Caliche and Calcrete

2.6.3 Desert Varnish

2.6.4 Weathering Rinds and Patina

2.6.5 Diffusion Fronts

2.7 Inorganic Artifacts

2.7.1 Stone Artifacts (General)

2.7.2 Flint and Chert (Silex)

2.7.3 Obsidian

2.7.4 Tektite Glass

2.7.5 Petroglyphs

2.7.6 Mortar

2.7.7 Ceramics and Bricks

2.7.8 Kilns, Burned Soil and Stones

2.7.9 Artificial Glass

2.7.10 Vitrified Forts

2.7.11 Metallurgical Slags

2.7.12 Lead Pigments and Alloys

2.8 Plant Remains

2.8.1 Wood

2.8.2 Charcoal

2.8.3 Seeds and Grains

2.8.4 Pollen and Spores

2.8.5 Phytoliths

2.8.6 Paper and Textiles

2.8.7 Peat and Sapropels

2.8.8 Organic Remains in Vessels, on Stone Tools and Rock Paintings

2.8.9 Wine

2.8.10 Diatoms

2.9 Animal Remains

2.9.1 Bones and Antlers

2.9.2 Teeth

2.9.3 Corals

2.9.4 Foraminifers

2.9.5 Mollusk Shells

2.9.6 Eggshell

2.10 Water and Ice

2.10.1 Ocean Water

2.10.2 Groundwater

2.10.3 Glacier Ice

3 Radiogenic Noble Gases

3.1 Potassium-Argon

3.1.1 Methodological Basis (Cassignol Technique, Argon-Argon Technique, Laser Technique, Argon-Argon Isochron Technique)

3.1.2 Practical Aspects

3.1.3 Application (Basalt, Tephra and Tuff, Obsidian, Tektites and Impact Glass)

3.2 Uranium-Helium

3.2.1 Methodological Basis

3.2.2 Practical Aspects

3.2.3 Application (Corals, Mollusks, Bones, Basalt)

4 Uranium Series (Radioactive Equilibrium, Disequilibrium as Clock, Detection Techniques, Thermo-Ionization Mass Spectrometry, Gamma Spectrometry)

4.1 Methods

4.1.1 Thorium-230/Uranium-234

4.1.2 Uranium Trend

4.1.3 Protactinium-231/Uranium-235

4.1.4 Uranium-234/Uranium-238

4.1.5 Excess Thorium-230 (Ionium) and Protactinium-231

4.1.6 Lead-210

4.1.7 Radium-226

4.1.8 Thorium-228/Radium-228

4.1.9 Lead-206,-207,-208/Uranium, Thorium

4.2 Practical Aspects

4.3 Application (Deep-Sea Sediments, Corals, Marine Phosphorite, Secondary Carbonates, Limnic Carbonates, Caliche and Calcrete, Mollusk Shells, Bones and Teeth, Peat, Lake and Estuary Deposits, Volcanites, Faults, Polymetallic Sulfides, Lead Pigments and Alloys)

5 Cosmogenic Nuclides (Atmospheric Production, In Situ Production, Accelerator Mass Spectrometry)

5.1 Tritium (Hydrogen-3)

5.1.1 Methodological Basis ((3)H-(3)He Method)

5.1.2 Practical Aspects

5.1.3 Application (Water, Snow, Wine)

5.2 Helium-3

5.2.1 Methodological Basis

5.2.2 Practical Aspects

5.2.3 Application (Basalt, Moraines)

5.3 Beryllium-10

5.3.1 Methodological Basis

5.3.2 Practical Aspects

5.3.3 Application (Soils, Limnic and Fluvial Sediments, Loess, Deep-Sea Sediments, Volcanites, Ice Cores, Quartz-Bearing Rocks)

5.4 Radiocarbon ((14)C)

5.4.1 Methodological Basis (Libby Model, Temporal Variation of Initial Radiocarbon, Spatial Variation of Initial Radiocarbon, Conventional 14C Age, Calibrated 14C Age, Contamination, Maximum Age)

5.4.2 Practical Aspects

5.4.3 Application (Wood and Charcoal, Seeds and Grains, Pollen and Spores, Phytoliths, Peat and Sapropel, Paper and Textiles, Bones and Antler, Soils, Limnic Sediments, Calcareous Cave Deposits and Travertine, Mollusk Shells, Eggshell, Corals and Foraminifers, Rock Varnish, Mortar, Stone Tools and Rock Paintings, Ceramics, Metallurgical Slag, Groundwater, Ice Cores)

5.5 Neon-21

5.5.1 Methodological Basis

5.5.2 Practical Aspects

5.5.3 Application (Basalt, Moraines)

5.6 Aluminum-26

5.6.1 Methodological Basis

5.6.2 Practical Aspects

5.6.3 Application (Deep-Sea Sediments, Quartz-Bearing Rocks)

5.7 Silicon-32

5.7.1 Methodological Basis

5.7.2 Practical Aspects

5.7.3 Application (Glacier Ice, Groundwater, Deep-Sea Sediments)

5.8 Chlorine-36

5.8.1 Methodological Basis

5.8.2 Practical Aspects

5.8.3 Application (Moraines, Lava Flows, Impactites, Ice Cores, Groundwater, Evaporites)

5.9 Argon-39

5.9.1 Methodological Basis

5.9.2 Practical Aspects

5.9.3 Application (Glacier Ice, Ocean Water, Groundwater)

5.10 Calcium-41

5.10.1 Methodological Basis

5.10.2 Application (Bones, Cave Sinter and Calcium Carbonate Concretions)

5.11 Krypton-81

5.11.1 Methodological Basis

5.11.2 Practical Aspects

5.11.3 Application (Glacier Ice, Groundwater)

6 Particle Tracks (Track Accumulation Age)

6.1 Fission Tracks

6.1.1 Methodological Basis (Fission Track Age, Track Annealing)

6.1.2 Practical Aspects

6.1.3 Application (Basalts, Volcanic Glasses, Tephra, Deep-Sea Volcanites, Impact Glasses, Pseudotachylite, Heated Obsidian Artifacts and Stones, Artificial Glasses)

6.2 Alpha Recoil Tracks

6.2.1 Methodological Basis

6.2.2 Practical Aspects

6.2.3 Application (Ceramics, Volcanites)

7 Radiation Dosimetry (Radiation Damage, Natural Dose, Resetting, Fading, Dose Rate, Dose Rate Evaluation)

7.1 Thermoluminescence

7.1.1 Methodological Basis (TL Phenomenon, Thermal and Optical Stability, Natural Dose, Grain Size Fractions, Age Calculation)

7.1.2 Practical Aspects

7.1.3 Application (Ceramics and Burned Clay, Burned Flint and Stones, Vitrified Forts, Artificial Glass, Slags, Volcanites, Impactites, Pseudotachylite and Fault Breccia, Fulgurite, Loess, Dune Sand, Sand (Aquatic), Carbonates, Colluvial and Alluvial Silts, Archaeological Sediments, Phytoliths)

7.2 Optically Stimulated Luminescence

7.2.1 Methodological Basis (OSL Phenomenon, Thermal and Optical Stability, Data Evaluation)

7.2.2 Practical Aspects

7.2.3 Application (Dunes, Loess, Sand (Aquatic), Colluvial and Alluvial Silts, Archaeological Sediments, Wasp Nests, Tephra, Ceramics)

7.3 Electron Spin Resonance

7.3.1 Methodological Basis (ESR Phenomenon, Natural Dose, Stability, Dose Rate, Age Calculation)

7.3.2 Practical Aspects

7.3.3 Application (Calcareous Cave Deposits, Travertine, Mollusk Shells, Teeth and Bones, Deep-Sea Sediments, Corals, Clastic Sediments, Flint, Mylonite, Volcanites)

8 Chemical Reactions (Reaction Kinetics, Diffusion)

8.1 Weathering Rinds

8.1.1 Methodological Basis

8.1.2 Practical Aspects

8.1.3 Application (Silex Artifacts, Glacial Debris)

8.2 Hydration

8.2.1 Methodological Basis

8.2.2 Practical Aspects

8.2.3 Application (Obsidian, Artifical Glass)

8.3 Glass Layer Counting

8.3.1 Methodological Basis

8.3.2 Practical Aspects

8.3.3 Application (Artificial Glass)

8.4 Fluorine Diffusion

8.4.1 Methodological Basis

8.4.2 Practical Aspects

8.4.3 Application (Stone Artifacts)

8.5 Calcium Diffusion

8.5.1 Methodological Basis

8.5.2 Practical Aspects

8.5.3 Application (Bricks)

8.6 Cation Ratio

8.6.1 Methodological Basis

8.6.2 Practical Aspects

8.6.3 Application (Rock Surface, Moraines, Petroglyphs, Stone Artifacts)

8.7 Fluorine-Uranium-Nitrogen Test

8.7.1 Methodological Basis (Fluorine Method, Uranium Method, Nitrogen Method)

8.7.2 Practical Aspects

8.7.3 Application (Bones and Teeth)

8.8 Racemization

8.8.1 Methodological Basis

8.8.2 Practical Aspects

8.8.3 Application (Bones, Teeth, Mollusks, Eggshell, Foraminifers, Corals, Wood)

9 Paleomagnetism

9.1 Methodological Basis (Natural Remanent Magnetization, Paleo-Secular Variation, Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale)

9.2 Practical Aspects

9.3 Application (Volcanites, Kilns and Burned Soil, Ceramics and Bricks, Deep-Sea Sediments, Limnic and Fluvial Sediments, Loess, Cave Sediments, Calcareous Cave Deposits, Sun-Dried Bricks)

10 Earth's Orbit, Climate and Age

10.1 Annual Cycles

10.1.1 Varve Chronology

10.1.2 Dendrochronology

10.1.3 Ice Layer Counting

10.2 Milankovitch Cycles

10.2.1 Astronomical Dating

10.2.2 Oxygen Isotopes

10.2.3 Ice Core Stratigraphy

10.2.4 Pollen Analysis

References

Subject Index