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Tables of Contents for The English Legal System
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
v
Acknowledgments
viii
Table of Cases
xxi
Table of Statutes
xxxv
Table of Statutory Instruments
xliii
Table of EC Legislation
xlv
Table of Abbreviations
xlvii
CHAPTER 1: LAW AND LEGAL STUDY
1
54
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1
1
1.2 THE NATURE OF LAW
1
1
1.3 CATEGORIES OF LAW
2
7
1.3.1 Common law and civil law
3
1
1.3.2 Common law and equity
3
2
1.3.3 Common law and statute law
5
1
1.3.4 Private law and public law
5
1
1.3.5 Civil law and criminal law
6
3
1.4 THE SEPARATION OF POWERS
9
5
1.4.1 Parliamentary sovereignty
10
1
1.4.2 Judicial independence
11
1
1.4.3 Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards
12
2
1.5 THE RULE OF LAW
14
8
1.5.1 AV Dicey
15
2
1.5.2 FA von Hayek
17
1
1.5.3 EP Thompson
18
1
1.5.4 Joseph Raz
19
1
1.5.5 Roberto Unger
20
1
1.5.6 Max Weber
21
1
1.5.7 The Rule of Law and the contemporary form of law
21
1
1.6 HUMAN RIGHTS DISCOURSE AND THE RULE OF LAW
22
1
1.7 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998
23
30
1.7.1 Cases decided under the Human Rights Act
29
10
1.7.2 The sentencing process
39
14
SUMMARY
53
2
CHAPTER 2: SOURCES OF LAW
55
46
2.1 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
55
1
2.2 LEGISLATION
55
13
2.2.1 The pre-parliamentary process
56
1
2.2.2 The legislative process
57
3
2.2.3 The drafting of legislation
60
2
2.2.4 Types of legislation
62
1
2.2.5 Delegated or subordinate legislation
63
2
2.2.6 Advantages in the use of delegated legislation
65
1
2.2.7 Disadvantages in the prevalence of delegated legislation
66
2
2.3 CASE LAW
68
26
2.3.1 Precedent
68
1
2.3.2 Law reporting
69
5
2.3.3 Precedent within the hierarchy of the courts
74
9
2.3.4 Binding precedent
83
6
2.3.5 Advantages of case law
89
2
2.3.6 Disadvantages of case law
91
3
2.4 BOOKS OF AUTHORITY
94
1
2.5 CUSTOM
95
1
2.6 LAW REFORM
96
3
SUMMARY
99
2
CHAPTER 3: THE CIVIL COURT STRUCTURE
101
26
3.1 THE COURT SERVICE
103
1
3.2 MAGISTRATES' COURTS
104
1
3.3 COUNTY COURTS
104
2
3.4 THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE
106
3
3.4.1 The Queen's Bench Division
107
1
3.4.2 The Queen's Bench Divisional Court
108
1
3.4.3 The Chancery Division
108
1
3.4.4 The Chancery Divisional Court
109
1
3.4.5 The Family Division
109
1
3.4.6 The Family Divisional Court
109
1
3.5 APPEALS FROM THE HIGH COURT
109
1
3.6 THE COURT OF APPEAL (CIVIL DIVISION)
109
2
3.7 REFORMS TO THE APPEAL PROCESS
111
4
3.7.1 Background
111
1
3.7.2 Changes made by the Access to Justice Act 1999 (Part IV)
112
1
3.7.3 Right to appeal
112
1
3.7.4 Destination of appeals
113
1
3.7.5 Civil Division of Court of Appeal
114
1
3.7.6 Jurisdiction of single judge of High Court
114
1
3.7.7 The Civil Procedure Rules
114
1
3.8 THE HOUSE OF LORDS
115
1
3.9 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE
116
2
3.10 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
118
1
3.11 JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL
118
1
3.12 CIVIL COURT FEES
119
4
SUMMARY
123
4
CHAPTER 4: THE CRIMINAL COURT STRUCTURE
127
38
4.1 CORONERS' COURTS
127
1
4.2 THE CRIMINAL TRIAL COURTS
128
1
4.3 MAGISTRATES' COURTS
129
17
4.3.1 Summary trial
130
2
4.3.2 Offences triable 'either way'
132
3
4.3.3 Youth Courts
135
2
4.3.4 Indictable offences - committal proceedings
137
2
4.3.5 The Access to Justice Act 1999 - magistrates' courts
139
7
4.4 THE CROWN COURT
146
3
4.4.1 The judges
147
1
4.4.2 Jurisdiction
147
1
4.4.3 Delay
148
1
4.4.4 Magistrates' courts v Crown Courts
149
1
4.5 CRIMINAL APPEALS
149
9
4.5.1 Appeals from magistrates' courts
150
1
4.5.2 Appeals from the Crown Court
150
4
4.5.3 The Access to Justice Act 1999 -jurisdiction
154
1
4.5.4 Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
155
1
4.5.5 Royal Commission on Criminal Justice
155
1
4.5.6 Criminal Cases Review Commission
156
2
4.6 A MISCARRIAGE OF JUSTICE
158
2
4.7 REFORM OF THE CRIMINAL COURTS
160
3
SUMMARY
163
2
CHAPTER 5: JUDICIAL REASONING
165
32
5.1 INTRODUCTION
165
1
5.1.1 Law and logic
165
1
5.2 REASONING IN GENERAL
166
3
5.2.1 Deductive reasoning
167
1
5.2.2 Inductive reasoning
168
1
5.2.3 Reasoning by analogy
169
1
5.3 JUDICIAL REASONING
169
2
5.3.1 The syllogism in law
169
1
5.3.2 The logical form of precedent
170
1
5.4 STATUTORY INTERPRETATION
171
18
5.4.1 Problems in interpreting legislation
172
1
5.4.2 Approaches to statutory interpretation
173
1
5.4.3 Rules of interpretation
174
5
5.4.4 Legal reasoning and the regulation of abortion: a case study
179
3
5.4.5 Aids to construction
182
2
5.4.6 Presumptions
184
5
5.5 LEGAL REASONING AND THE POSSIBILITY OF RAPE WITHIN MARRIAGE: A CASE STUDY
189
4
5.6 LEGAL REASONING AND RHETORIC
193
2
SUMMARY
195
2
CHAPTER 6: THE JUDICIARY
197
66
6.1 THE CONSTITUTIONAL ROLE OF THE JUDICIARY
197
12
6.1.1 The constitutional role of the Lord Chancellor
197
4
6.1.2 The constitution and the role of the House of Lords
201
3
6.1.3 Judicial impartiality
204
5
6.2 JUDICIAL OFFICES
209
3
6.2.1 Judicial hierarchy
210
1
6.2.2 Legal offices
211
1
6.3 APPOINTMENT OF JUDICIARY
212
10
6.3.1 Qualifications
213
1
6.3.2 Selection of judges
214
8
6.4 TRAINING OF THE JUDICIARY
222
5
6.4.1 Equal treatment training
223
4
6.5 RETIREMENT OF JUDGES
227
1
6.6 REMOVAL OF JUDGES
228
1
6.7 JUDICIAL IMMUNITY FROM SUIT
229
1
6.8 MAGISTRATES
230
6
6.8.1 Appointment
232
3
6.8.2 The future of the magistrates' courts
235
1
6.9 JUDICIAL REVIEW
236
6
6.9.1 Private law remedies
237
1
6.9.2 The prerogative orders
238
1
6.9.3 Grounds for application for judicial review
239
2
6.9.4 The exclusion of judicial review
241
1
6.10 POLITICS AND THE JUDICIARY
242
10
6.10.1 Sentencing policy
242
2
6.10.2 The politics of judicial review and the Human Rights Act
244
8
6.11 POLITICS OF THE JUDICIARY
252
7
6.11.1 Criticisms
254
5
SUMMARY
259
4
CHAPTER 7: THE CIVIL PROCESS
263
50
7.1 THE NEED FOR REFORM
263
6
7.2 THE NEW CIVIL PROCESS
269
4
7.2.1 The Civil Procedure Rules
270
1
7.2.2 The overriding objective (CPR Part 1)
270
1
7.2.3 Practice directions
271
1
7.2.4 Pre-action protocols
271
2
7.3 CASE CONTROL (CPR PART 3)
273
5
7.3.1 Case management conferences
275
1
7.3.2 Pre-trial reviews
276
1
7.3.3 Stays for settlement (CPR Part 26) and settlements (CPR Part 36)
276
1
7.3.4 Applications to be made when claims come before a judge (CPR Part 1)
277
1
7.3.5 Witness statements (CPR Part 34)
277
1
7.3.6 Experts (CPR Part 35)
278
1
7.4 COURT AND TRACK ALLOCATION (CPR PART 26)
278
4
7.4.1 The small claims track (CPR Part 27)
279
2
7.4.2 The fast track (CPR Part 28)
281
1
7.4.3 The multi-track (CPR Part 29)
281
1
7.5 DOCUMENTATION AND PROCEDURES
282
7
7.5.1 How to start proceedings - the claim form (CPR Part 7)
282
1
7.5.2 Alternative procedure for claims (CPR Part 8)
282
1
7.5.3 Statement of case - value (CPR Part 16)
283
1
7.5.4 Statement of case - particulars of claim (CPR Part 16)
283
1
7.5.5 Statements of truth (CPR Part 22)
284
1
7.5.6 Response to particulars of claim (CPR Part 9)
285
1
7.5.7 Service (CPR Part 6)
285
1
7.5.8 Admissions and part admissions (CPR Part 14)
286
1
7.5.9 Defence and automatic transfer (CPR Part 26)
287
1
7.5.10 Allocation questionnaire (Form N150)
287
1
7.5.11 Default judgment (CPR Part 12)
288
1
7.5.12 Summary judgment (CPR Part 24)
288
1
7.6 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HEARINGS (CPR PART 39)
289
1
7.7 APPEALS (CPR PART 52)
289
1
7.8 REMEDIES
290
1
7.9 DAMAGES
290
4
7.9.1 Types of damages
290
1
7.9.2 Damages in contract
291
2
7.9.3 Damages in tort
293
1
7.10 EQUITABLE REMEDIES
294
1
7.11 COURT FEES
295
1
7.12 COSTS (CPR PARTS 44-48)
296
1
7.13 WHAT HAS THE NEW SYSTEM ACHIEVED?
296
4
7.14 THE DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN THE HIGH COURT AND COUNTY COURTS AFTER THE WOOLF REFORMS
300
1
7.15 DO WE NEED TWO SORTS OF COURT AFTER WOOLF?
301
1
7.16 ENFORCEMENT OF CIVIL REMEDIES
302
3
SUMMARY
305
8
CHAPTER 8: ARBITRATION, TRIBUNAL ADJUDICATION AND ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
313
38
8.1 INTRODUCTION
313
4
8.2 ARBITRATION
317
8
8.2.1 Procedure
318
3
8.2.2 Relationship to ordinary courts
321
1
8.2.3 Advantages
322
1
8.2.4 Small claims procedure in the county court
323
1
8.2.5 Arbitration under Codes of Conduct
324
1
8.3 ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS
325
12
8.3.1 Tribunals and courts
326
1
8.3.2 Composition of tribunals
327
1
8.3.3 Statutory tribunals
328
2
8.3.4 Immigration and asylum appeals procedure
330
1
8.3.5 Domestic tribunals
331
1
8.3.6 Advantages of tribunals
332
1
8.3.7 Disadvantages of tribunals
333
2
8.3.8 The Leggatt Review of Tribunals
335
2
8.4 OMBUDSMAN
337
6
8.4.1 Procedure
339
2
8.4.2 Freedom of information
341
1
8.4.3 Evaluation
342
1
8.5 MEDIATION AND CONCILIATION
343
6
8.5.1 Mediation
344
1
8.5.2 Mediation in divorce
344
3
8.5.3 Conciliation
347
2
SUMMARY
349
2
CHAPTER 9: THE CRIMINAL PROCESS: (1) THE INVESTIGATION OF CRIME
351
82
9.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE CRIMINAL PROCESS
351
2
9.1.1 The criminal justice system in the 21st century
351
2
9.2 MISTRUST OF THE SYSTEM
353
9
9.2.1 The Macpherson Report
354
5
9.2.2 Lack of confidence in the system
359
1
9.2.3 A contradiction
359
1
9.2.4 Contemporary issues
360
2
9.3 ARREST
362
23
9.3.1 Remedies for unlawful arrest
363
2
9.3.2 General powers of arrest
365
1
9.3.3 Arrest under warrant
365
1
9.3.4 Common law arrests
365
2
9.3.5 Arrest under legislation
367
1
9.3.6 G v DPP (1989)
368
1
9.3.7 Walters v WH Smith & Son Ltd (1914)
369
1
9.3.8 R v Self (1992)
370
1
9.3.9 John Lewis & Co v Tims (1952)
370
1
9.3.10 What is the meaning of 'reasonable grounds for suspecting'?
370
3
9.3.11 Detention short of arrest
373
1
9.3.12 Suspects stopped in the street
373
1
9.3.13 Stop and search
374
1
9.3.14 The Code of Practice for the exercise of statutory powers of stop and search
375
1
9.3.15 Search of arrested persons
376
1
9.3.16 Search on detention
377
1
9.3.17 Procedure on arrest
377
3
9.3.18 Police powers under s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
380
1
9.3.19 Other aspects of s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
381
2
9.3.20 Accountability and s 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
383
1
9.3.21 The Terrorism Act 2000
383
1
9.3.22 The use of force to effect an arrest
384
1
9.3.23 Duties after arrest
384
1
9.4 ENTRY, SEARCH AND SEIZURE
385
7
9.4.1 Entry of premises under the common law
385
1
9.4.2 Entry of premises to prevent an offence being committed
386
1
9.4.3 Entry and search of premises to make an arrest
387
2
9.4.4 Seizure of articles from searches
389
1
9.4.5 Search warrants and safeguards
389
3
9.5 INTERROGATION, CONFESSION AND ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE
392
34
9.5.1 Time limits on detention without charge
393
1
9.5.2 Searches of detained persons
394
1
9.5.3 The right to have someone informed when arrested
395
1
9.5.4 The right to consult a solicitor
395
1
9.5.5 Notifying the suspect of the right to free legal advice
396
1
9.5.6 Duty solicitors
397
2
9.5.7 Delaying access to legal advice
399
1
9.5.8 R v Samuel (1988)
399
1
9.5.9 R v Alladice (1988)
400
1
9.5.10 R v Davidson (1988)
401
1
9.5.11 R v Parris (1989)
401
1
9.5.12 Interviewing before solicitor arrives
402
1
9.5.13 Answering police questions and the right to silence
402
2
9.5.14 Duties to answer
404
1
9:5.15 What can be said in court about silence in the face of police questioning
405
2
9.5.16 Right to silence in courts
407
2
9.5.17 Effective abolition of the right to silence
409
3
9.5.18 Directions to the jury on silent defendants
412
3
9.5.19 Tape-recording of interrogations
415
1
9.5.20 Confessions and the admissibility of evidence
415
1
9.5.21 Oppression
416
1
9.5.22 Unreliability
417
1
9.5.23 R v Heaton (1993)
418
1
9.5.24 The Court of Appeal's decision
419
2
9.5.25 Research findings
421
1
9.5.26 Evidence illegally or improperly obtained
422
1
9.5.27 Runciman Royal Commission proposals
423
1
9.5.28 Confession evidence
424
1
9.5.29 Corroboration of confessions
424
2
9.6 REVISED PACE CODES
426
1
SUMMARY
427
6
CHAPTER 10: THE CRIMINAL PROCESS: (2) THE PROSECUTION
433
64
10.1 THE CROWN PROSECUTION SERVICE
433
12
10.1.1 The Code for Crown Prosecutors
437
1
10.1.2 The discretion to prosecute
437
1
10.1.3 Police cautioning of offenders
438
1
10.1.4 CPS guidelines
439
2
10.1.5 CPS independence from the police
441
2
10.1.6 Judicial control of prosecution policy
443
1
10.1.7 State prosecutors in the Crown Courts
444
1
10.2 BAIL
445
8
10.2.1 The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
446
4
10.2.2 Appeals and re-applications
450
3
10.3 PLEA BARGAINING
453
5
10.3.1 R v Turner (1970)
453
1
10.3.2 Court of Appeal Practice Direction
453
2
10.3.3 R v Pitman (1991)
455
1
10.3.4 Royal Commission recommendations
456
2
10.4 THE JURY
458
3
10.5 THE ROLE OF THE JURY
461
6
10.5.1 The jury's function in trials
462
3
10.5.2 Appeals from decisions of the jury
465
1
10.5.3 Majority verdicts
465
1
10.5.4 Discharge of jurors or the jury
466
1
10.6 THE SELECTION OF THE JURY
467
10
10.6.1 Liability to serve
467
1
10.6.2 Exceptions, excusals and disqualifications
468
1
10.6.3 Physical disability and jury service
469
1
10.6.4 Challenges to jury membership
470
1
10.6.5 Challenge by the defence
470
1
10.6.6 Challenge by the prosecution
471
1
10.6.7 Jury vetting
472
1
10.6.8 The racial mix of the jury
473
2
10.6.9 Racial bias injuries
475
2
10.7 THE DECLINE OF THE JURY TRIAL
477
6
10.7.1 The jury trial in civil procedure
477
5
10.7.2 Juries in criminal trials
482
1
10.8 JURY REFORM
483
10
10.8.1 Roskill Committee
483
1
10.8.2 The Runciman Commission
484
5
10.8.3 Criminal Justice (Mode of Trial) Bills
489
1
10.8.4 The Auld Review
490
1
10.8.5 Criminal Justice Bill 2002
491
1
10.8.6 Conclusion
491
2
SUMMARY
493
4
CHAPTER 11: LEGAL SERVICES
497
36
11.1 INTRODUCTION
497
2
11.2 THE LEGAL PROFESSION
499
1
11.3 SOLICITORS
500
5
11.3.1 Training
501
1
11.3.2 The Law Society
501
3
11.3.3 The Institute of Legal Executives
504
1
11.4 BARRISTERS
505
3
11.4.1 Training
506
1
11.4.2 The Inns of Court
506
1
11.4.3 The General Council of the Bar
506
1
11.4.4 Education
506
1
11.4.5 Queen's Counsel
507
1
11.4.6 The barrister's chambers
507
1
11.5 PROFESSIONAL ETIQUETTE
508
6
11.5.1 Immunity from negligence claims
509
5
11.6 FUSION
514
2
11.7 THE COURTS AND LEGAL SERVICES ACT 1990
516
11
11.7.1 Section 17
516
1
11.7.2 Solicitors' rights of audience
517
3
11.7.3 The Access to Justice Act 1999 and rights of audience
520
2
11.7.4 Partnerships and transnational firms
522
2
11.7.5 Employed solicitors
524
1
11.7.6 Monopoly conveyancing rights
524
2
11.7.7 The Legal Services Ombudsman
526
1
11.8 LAWYERS AND FAIR TRADING
527
4
SUMMARY
531
2
CHAPTER 12: THE FUNDING OF LEGAL SERVICES
533
44
12.1 INTRODUCTION
533
1
12.2 A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
534
3
12.3 THE NEW LEGAL AID SCHEME
537
3
12.3.1 Controlled and licensed work
538
1
12.3.2 Contracting
538
1
12.3.3 Quality Mark
539
1
12.4 THE LEGAL SERVICES COMMISSION
540
1
12.5 THE COMMUNITY LEGAL SERVICE
540
10
12.5.1 Community Legal Service contract
541
1
12.5.2 Financial eligibility test
541
2
12.5.3 The Funding Code
543
2
12.5.4 Legal services provided
545
1
12.5.5 The CLS Fund
546
1
12.5.6 Extension of financial conditions on an assisted party
547
1
12.5.7 Matching delivery with needs and priorities
548
1
12.5.8 Relative success of the scheme
549
1
12.6 THE CRIMINAL DEFENCE SERVICE
550
3
12.7 PUBLIC DEFENDER SERVICE
553
2
12.8 THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR
555
1
12.8.1 Law Centres
555
1
12.8.2 Other voluntary advice
556
1
12.9 CONDITIONAL FEE ARRANGEMENTS
556
11
12.9.1 Access to Justice Act 1999
560
2
12.9.2 The advantages of conditional fee arrangements
562
1
12.9.3 The disadvantages of conditional fee arrangements
562
2
12.9.4 The operation of conditional fee arrangements
564
3
12.10 UNMET LEGAL NEED
567
4
12.10.1 Does it matter if such needs remain unmet?
570
1
SUMMARY
571
6
CHAPTER 13: THE EUROPEAN CONTEXT
577
34
13.1 INTRODUCTION
577
7
13.1.1 Parliamentary sovereignty, European Community law and the courts
581
3
13.2 SOURCES OF EUROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW
584
3
13.2.1 Internal treaties
585
1
13.2.2 International treaties
585
1
13.2.3 Secondary legislation
585
2
13.2.4 Judgments of the European Court of Justice
587
1
13.3 THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
587
11
13.3.1 The Council of Ministers
587
2
13.3.2 The European Parliament
589
1
13.3.3 Powers of the European Parliament
589
2
13.3.4 Economic and Social Committee
591
1
13.3.5 The European Commission
591
2
13.3.6 The European Court of Justice
593
4
13.3.7 The Court of Auditors
597
1
13.4 THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
598
10
13.4.1 The genesis of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
605
3
13.5 THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION AND THE EUROPEAN UNION
608
1
SUMMARY
609
2
Further Reading
611
16
Index
627