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Tables of Contents for Gas Turbine Combustion
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xiii
Basic Considerations
1
32
Introduction
1
1
Early Combustor Developments
2
5
Britain
2
2
Germany
4
2
USA
6
1
Basic Design Features
7
1
Combustor Requirements
8
1
Combustor Types
9
4
Tubular
9
1
Tuboannular
9
3
Annular
12
1
Diffuser
13
2
Primary Zone
15
1
Intermediate Zone
15
1
Dilution Zone
16
2
Fuel Preparation
18
2
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers
18
1
Airblast Atomizer
19
1
Gas Injection
20
1
Wall Cooling
20
3
Wall-Cooling Techniques
22
1
Combustors for Low Emissions
23
2
Combustors for Small Engines
25
2
Industrial Chambers
27
4
Aeroderivative Engines
29
2
References
31
1
Bibliography
31
2
Combustion Fundamentals
33
38
Introduction
33
1
Deflagration
33
1
Detonation
34
1
Classification of Flames
34
1
Physics or Chemistry?
34
1
Flammability Limits
35
1
Global Reaction-Rate Theory
36
2
Weak Mixtures
36
1
Rich Mixturs
37
1
Laminar Premixed Flames
38
1
Factors Influencing Laminar Flame Speed
38
1
Laminar Diffusion Flames
39
1
Turbulent Premixed Flames
40
1
Flame Propagation in Heterogeneous Mixtures of Fuel Drops, Fuel Vapor, and Air
41
3
Droplet and Spray Evaporation
44
6
Heat-Up Period
45
1
Evaporation Constant
46
1
Convective Effects
47
1
Effective Evaporation Constant
47
2
Spray Evaporation
49
1
Some Recent Developments
49
1
Ignition Theory
50
7
Gaseous Mixtures
50
2
Heterogeneous Mixtures
52
5
Spontaneous Ignition
57
5
Flashback
62
1
Stoichiometry
63
1
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
63
2
Factors Influencing the Adiabatic Flame Temperature
64
1
Nomenclature
65
1
References
66
3
Bibliography
69
2
Diffusers
71
30
Introduction
71
1
Diffuser Geometry
72
1
Flow Regimes
73
1
Performance Criteria
74
3
Pressure-Recovery Coefficient
75
1
Ideal Pressure-Recovery Coefficient
76
1
Overall Effectiveness
76
1
Loss Coefficient
76
1
Kinetic-Energy Coefficient
77
1
Performance
77
3
Conical Diffusers
77
1
Two-Dimensional Diffusers
78
2
Annular Diffusers
80
1
Effect of Inlet Flow Conditions
80
3
Reynolds Number
81
1
Mach Number
81
1
Turbulence
82
1
Swirl
83
1
Design Considerations
83
11
Faired Diffusers
83
3
Dump Diffusers
86
2
Splitter Vanes
88
1
Vortex-Controlled Diffuser
88
2
Hybrid Diffuser
90
2
Diffusers for Tubular and Tuboannular Combustors
92
1
Testing of Diffusers
93
1
Numerical Simulations
94
2
Nomenclature
96
1
References
97
4
Aerodynamics
101
34
Introduction
101
1
Reference Quantities
102
1
Pressure-Loss Parameters
102
3
Relationship Between Size and Pressure Loss
105
1
Flow in the Annulus
106
1
Flow Through Liner Holes
107
4
Discharge Coefficient
107
3
Initial Jet Angle
110
1
Jet Trajectories
111
4
Experiments on Single Jets
111
1
Penetration of Multiple Jets
112
3
Jet Mixing
115
4
Cylindrical Ducts
116
1
Rectangular Ducts
117
1
Annular Ducts
118
1
Temperature Traverse Quality
119
2
Dilution Zone Design
121
2
Cranfield Design Method
121
1
NASA Design Method
122
1
Comparison of Cranfield and NASA Design Methods
122
1
Correlation of Pattern Factor Data
123
1
Rig Testing for Pattern Factor
124
1
Swirler Aerodynamics
125
1
Axial Swirlers
126
4
Swirl Number
127
1
Size of Recirculation Zone
128
1
Flow Reversal
129
1
Influence of Swirler Exit Geometry
130
1
Radial Swirlers
130
1
Flat Vanes Versus Curved Vanes
130
1
Nomenclature
131
1
References
132
3
Combustion Performance
135
60
Introduction
135
1
Combustion Efficiency
135
1
The Combustion Process
136
1
Reaction-Controlled Systems
136
5
Burning Velocity Model
136
4
Stirred Reactor Model
140
1
Mixing-Controlled Systems
141
1
Evaporation-Controlled Systems
142
3
Reaction- and Evaporation-Controlled Systems
145
1
Flame Stabilization
146
5
Definition of Stability Performance
147
1
Measurement of Stability Performance
148
2
Water Injection Technique
150
1
Bluff-Body Flameholders
151
7
Experimental Findings on Bluff-Body Flame Stabilization
152
6
Summary of Experimental Findings
158
1
Mechanisms of Flame Stabilization
158
4
Homogeneous Mixtures
159
1
Heterogeneous Mixtures
160
2
Flame Stabilization in Combustion Chambers
162
4
Influence of Mode of Fuel Injection
163
1
Correlation of Experimental Data
163
3
Ignition
166
1
Assessment of Ignition Performance
167
1
Spark Ignition
167
5
The High-Energy Ignition Unit
168
1
The Surface-Discharge Igniter
169
3
Other Forms of Ignition
172
4
Torch Igniter
172
1
Glow Plug
173
1
Hot-Surface Ignition
173
1
Plasma Jet
173
1
Laser Ignition
174
1
Chemical Ignition
175
1
Gas Addition
175
1
Oxygen Injection
175
1
Factors Influencing Ignition Performance
176
8
Ignition System
176
3
Flow Variables
179
3
Fuel Parameters
182
2
The Ignition Process
184
2
Factors Influencing Phase 1
185
1
Factors Influencing Phase 2
185
1
Factors Influencing Phase 3
185
1
Methods of Improving Ignition Performance
186
3
Correlation of Experimental Data
187
2
Nomenclature
189
1
References
190
5
Fuel Injection
195
62
Basic Processes in Atomization
195
2
Introduction
195
1
Breakup of Drops
196
1
Classical Mechanism of Jet and Sheet Breakup
197
3
Breakup of Fuel Jets
197
2
Breakup of Fuel Sheets
199
1
Prompt Atomization
200
1
Classical or Prompt?
201
1
Drop Size Distributions
201
8
Graphical Representation of Drop Size Distributions
201
2
Mathematical Distribution Functions
203
1
Rosin-Rammler
204
1
Modified Rosin-Rammler
205
1
Mean Diameters
206
1
Representative Diameters
206
2
Prediction of Drop Size Distributions
208
1
Atomizer Requirements
209
1
Pressure Atomizers
209
3
Plain Orifice
209
1
Simplex
210
1
Dual-Orifice
211
1
Spill-Return
212
1
Rotary Atomizers
212
1
Air-Assist Atomizers
213
1
Airblast Atomizers
214
5
Plain-Jet Airblast
215
1
Prefilming Airblast
215
1
Piloted Airblast
216
1
Airblast Simplex
217
2
Effervescent Atomizers
219
2
Vaporizers
221
2
Fuel Nozzle Coking
223
3
Gas Injection
226
1
Equations for Mean Drop Size
226
2
SMD Equations for Pressure Atomizers
228
2
Plain-Orifice
228
1
Pressure-Swirl
228
2
SMD Equations for Twin-Fluid Atomizers
230
3
SMD Equations for Prompt Atomization
233
2
Comments on SMD Equations
234
1
Internal Flow Characteristics
235
1
Flow Number
235
1
Discharge Coefficient
236
5
Plain-Orifice Atomizers
236
2
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers
238
1
Film Thickness
238
3
Spray Cone Angle
241
2
Plain-Orifice Atomizers
241
1
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers
241
2
Radial Fuel Distribution
243
4
Circumferential Fuel Distribution
247
3
Pressure-Swirl Atomizers
247
2
Airblast Atomizers
249
1
Nomenclature
250
1
References
251
6
Combustion Noise
257
18
Introduction
257
1
Direct Combustion Noise
258
2
Theory
258
2
Core Noise Prediction Methods
260
1
Combustion Instabilities
260
8
Descriptions of Acoustic Oscillations
261
1
Influence of Fuel Type
262
1
Influence of Combustor Operating Conditions
262
1
Influence of Ambient Conditions
263
1
Aerodynamic Instabilities
263
2
Fuel-Injector Instabilities
265
1
Compressor-Induced Oscillations
266
1
LPM Combustor Noise
266
1
Test Rig Simulations
267
1
Control of Combustion Instabilities
268
3
Passive Control
268
1
Active Control
269
1
Examples of Active Control
269
1
Influence of Control Signal Frequency
270
1
Modeling of Combustion Instabilities
271
1
References
272
2
Bibliography
274
1
Heat Transfer
275
36
Introduction
275
1
Heat-Transfer Processes
276
1
Internal Radiation
277
3
Radiation from Nonluminous Gases
277
2
Radiation from Luminous Gases
279
1
External Radiation
280
1
Internal Covection
281
1
External Convection
282
1
Calculation of Uncooled Linear Temperature
282
4
Method of Calculation
283
2
Significance of Calculated Uncooled Liner Temperatures
285
1
Film Cooling
286
3
Wigglestrips
286
1
Stacked Ring
287
1
Splash-Cooling Ring
287
1
Machined Ring
288
1
Rolled Ring
288
1
Z Ring
288
1
Correlation of Film-Cooling Data
289
9
Theories Based on Turbulent Boundary-Layer Model
290
1
Theories Based on Wall-Jet Model
291
2
Calculation of Film-Cooled Wall Temperature
293
3
Film Cooling with Augmented Convection
296
1
Impingement Cooling
297
1
Transpiration Cooling
298
1
Practical Applications of Transpiration Cooling
298
3
Transply
299
1
Lamilloy
300
1
Effusion Cooling
300
1
Advanced Wall-Cooling Methods
301
2
Angled Effusion Cooling
301
1
Tiles
302
1
Augmented Cold-Side Convection
303
1
Thermal Barrier Coatings
304
1
Materials
305
2
Metal Alloys
306
1
Ceramics
306
1
Liner Failure Modes
307
1
Nomenclature
308
1
References
309
2
Emissions
311
74
Introduction
311
1
Concerns
312
1
Regulations
313
4
Aircraft Engines
313
2
Stationary Gas Turbines
315
2
Mechanisms of Pollutant Formation
317
14
Carbon Monoxide
317
3
Unburned Hydrocarbons
320
1
Smoke
321
3
Oxides of Nitrogen
324
4
Influence of Pressure on NOx Formation
328
2
Influence of Fuel Atomization on NOx Formation
330
1
Pollutants Reduction in Conventional Combustors
331
7
Carbon Monoxide and Unburned Hydrocarbons
331
2
Smoke
333
2
Oxides of Nitrogen
335
3
Pollutants Reduction by Control of Flame Temperature
338
6
Variable Geometry
339
1
Staged Combustion
340
4
Dry Low-NOx Combustors
344
15
Solar DLE Concepts
345
1
Siemens Hybrid Burner
346
2
General Electric DLN Combustor
348
2
ABB EV Burner
350
2
Rolls Royce RB211 Industrial Burner
352
1
EGT DLN Combustor
353
1
General Electric LM6000 Combustor
354
3
Allison AGT100 Combustor
357
2
Developments in Japan
359
1
Lean Premix Prevaporize Combustion
359
4
Fuel-Air Premixing
361
2
Rich-Burn, Quick-Quench, Lean-Burn Combustor
363
3
Catalytic Combustion
366
7
Design Approaches
367
1
Design Constraints
367
1
Fuel Preparation
368
1
Catalytic Bed Construction
369
1
Post-Catalyst Combustion
369
1
Design and Performance
370
2
Use of Variable Geometry
372
1
Future
372
1
Correlation and Modeling of NOx and CO Emissions
373
3
NOx Correlations
373
3
CO Correlations
376
1
Concluding Remarks
376
2
Nomenclature
378
1
References
379
6
Author Index
385
8
Subject Index
393