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Tables of Contents for Sound Reinforcement Handbook
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Section 1. What is a Sound System
The audio signal
1
3
Sound waves
1
1
The electrical representation of sound
2
1
Phase
2
1
Adding sine waves
3
1
The basic purpose of a sound system
4
1
A conceptual model of a sound system
4
1
Input transducers
5
1
Output transducers
5
1
A practical model of a sound system
6
3
Section 2. Frequency Response
A definition
9
3
Basic specification methods
10
1
Octave relationships and measurements
11
1
Frequency response of practical audio devices
12
3
Electronic circuits and cables
12
2
Microphones
14
1
Loudspeakers
14
1
Voice and instrument ranges
15
2
The speaking voice
15
1
The singing voice and musical instruments
15
1
Harmonics
16
1
Effect of acoustical factors
17
2
Section 3. The Decibel, Sound Level, & Related Items
What is a decibel?
19
3
A mathematical definition of the dB
19
2
Relative versus absolute levels
21
1
Relating the decibel to electrical signal levels
22
3
dBm
22
1
dBu
22
1
dBv and dBv
23
1
Converting dBv to dBu (or to dBm across 600 ohms)
24
1
Relating dBv, dBu and dBm to specifications
24
1
dBw
25
1
Relating the decibel to acoustic levels
25
2
dB SPL
25
1
dB PWL
26
1
What is rms?
27
1
Volume, level and gain
28
1
Loudness
29
4
Equal loudness contours and phons
29
1
What we can deduce from equal loudness contours
30
1
Loudness compensation
31
2
Section 4. Dynamic Range
Dynamic range
33
2
A definition
33
1
The dynamic range of a typical rock concert
33
1
The electrical dynamic range of the sound system
33
1
The acoustical dynamic range of the system
34
1
Headroom
35
2
A definition
35
1
Why headroom is important
36
1
Manipulating dynamic range in a practical sound system
37
6
Why not build a sound system with excess dynamic range?
37
1
What happens when the sound system is inadequate?
37
2
How to fit wide program dynamics into a sound system with limited dynamic range
39
3
How much headroom is adequate?
42
1
Section 5. Sound Outdoors
The inverse square law
43
2
Inverse square law calculations
44
1
Effects of environmental factors
45
2
Wind
45
1
Temperature gradients
46
1
Humidity
46
1
Feedback control
47
6
Maximum gain (available gain before feedback)
47
2
Using directional microphones and loudspeakers
49
4
Section 6. Sound Indoors
Boundaries
53
2
The absorption coefficient
54
1
Standing waves
55
2
Standing waves in a room
56
1
Reverberation
57
1
Critical distance
58
3
Implications for sound reinforcement
60
1
Section 7. Block Diagrams
General discussion
61
2
Symbolic conventions
63
3
Notational conventions
66
1
Analysis of simple block diagrams
67
3
Summation
70
1
Section 8. How to Read & Interpret Specifications
General discussion
71
1
Why specs are not always what they seem
71
1
Examples of specs that should be doubted
71
1
What to look for
72
1
Frequency response
72
3
Distinguishing frequency response, frequency range, and power bandwidth
72
2
Graphic versus printed specs
74
1
What is a good frequency response spec?
74
1
Noise
75
6
What is noise?
75
1
White noise
76
1
Pink noise
76
1
Shaping the noise
77
1
EIN: a measure of mic preamplifier noise
78
1
Specifying output noise
78
2
Other types of noise
80
1
Harmonic distortion
81
4
What is harmonic distortion?
81
1
Measuring harmonic distortion
82
2
Factors affecting harmonic distortion specifications
84
1
Intermodulation distortion
85
2
Measuring IM distortion
85
1
Sources of IM distortion
86
1
How much distortion is tolerable?
86
1
Transient intermodulation distortion
86
1
Input and output impedances
87
5
Confusion about input and output impedances
88
2
Output impedance
88
1
Input impedance
89
1
The implications of impedance mismatches
90
1
Impedance and frequency
91
1
Standard operating levels
92
4
General classification of levels
92
1
Expressing the wide power range of a sound system
93
1
How impedance relates to level specifications
94
1
Power vs impedance
94
1
Overloading an output
94
1
How the load affects output voltage
95
1
What happens when hi-fi and pro equipment mix
95
1
Hi-fi output to pro equipment input
95
1
Pro equipment output to hi-fi input
96
1
Crosstalk
96
3
What causes crosstalk?
97
1
Crosstalk in cables
97
1
Specification of crosstalk
97
2
Filter slope rates and turnover frequencies
99
1
Square wave tests
100
3
Oscilloscopes
101
2
What not to expect with square waves
103
1
Miscellany
103
2
Section 9. Why Ears Don't Always Correlate With Specs
Different points of view
105
2
Calibrated mics vs ears
105
1
Average ears vs ``golden ears''
106
1
Test equipment measurements vs listening tests
107
4
Test signals versus program material
107
2
Location and number of test microphones
109
1
Dynamic range
110
1
Static vs dynamic tests
111
1
Masking effects and equipment interaction
112
1
Section 10. Microphones
Methods of transduction
113
3
Dynamic
113
1
Condenser
113
1
Electret condenser
114
1
Ribbon
114
1
Carbon
115
1
Piezoelectric
116
1
Functional design
116
5
Hand-held
116
1
Stand-mounting
117
1
Lavalier
117
1
Contact pickup
118
1
Pressure response
118
1
Shotgun
119
1
Parabolic
119
1
Multi-element arrays
120
1
Noise cancelling microphones
120
1
Acoustical and electrical characteristics
121
8
Pickup patterns
121
3
Omnidirectional
121
1
Cardioid
121
2
Bidirectional or figure-8
123
1
Supercardioid
123
1
Frequency response
124
1
Proximity effect
125
1
Transient response
125
1
Output level or sensitivity
126
1
Overload
126
1
Impedance
127
1
Balanced and unbalanced connections
127
2
Application information
129
3
Windscreens and pop filters
129
1
Shock mounts
129
1
Phantom power
130
1
Effect of the number of open microphones
130
1
Gain and microphone placement
131
1
Stereo recording
131
1
Wireless intercom systems
132
7
What is a wireless intercom?
132
1
Who uses wireless intercoms?
132
1
What is the background of wireless intercoms?
133
1
Types of wireless intercoms
133
2
Frequencies used
135
1
Improved range and noise reduction
136
1
Evaluating and selecting a system
136
1
Conclusions
137
1
Glossary of wireless intercom terms
138
1
Wireless microphone systems
139
10
What is a wireless mic?
139
1
Who uses wireless mics?
139
1
What is the background of wireless mics?
139
1
Radio frequencies used
140
1
Technical problems
141
1
Solutions
142
3
Compatibility of wireless mic systems
145
1
Antenna cables
146
1
Evaluating wireless microphone systems
146
1
Conclusions
147
1
Glossary of wireless microphone terms
148
1
Section 11. Preamplifiers, Small Mixers, & Mixing Consoles
General discussion
149
3
Preamplifiers
152
2
What are they, and what do they do?
152
1
Impedance converters
153
1
Phono preamps
153
1
Mixers
154
1
Consoles
155
7
What is a console?
155
1
How mixes differ: pre & post fader considerations
155
2
Panning, summing and master faders
157
5
Understanding console specifications
162
5
How many inputs, mixes and outputs?
162
1
Signal-to-noise ratio
162
2
Maximum voltage gain
164
1
Headroom
165
1
Indicators
166
1
Transformer isolated versus electronically balanced inputs & outputs
167
5
Transformers versus differetial amps: price concerns
168
1
Discrete versus IC differential amps
168
1
The case for the transformer
169
1
Transformers and AC safety
170
1
More on transformers
170
2
Gain staging and gain structure
172
3
Why does gain have to be manipulated? a review of sound levels fed to the console
172
1
Gain control at the microphone input
173
1
Input attenuation or padding
173
1
Eliminating other causes of signal-level (& gain) related distortion
174
1
Summing amp overdrive
174
1
Power amp overdrive
174
1
Interface with sub-mixers
175
3
Stage monitor mixing consoles
178
4
What is a stage monitor system?
178
1
Why a monitor console is preferable to a mix from the main house console
179
1
The importance of a high quality monitor mix
180
1
Other benefits of a separate monitor console
180
1
Polarity (phase) reversal as a tool to fight feedback
181
1
Eliminating SCR dimmer noise
182
1
Microphone splitting
182
4
The splitter transformer
183
1
Additional isolation for high-noise environments
184
1
Splitting a mic without a transformer
185
1
Reducing feedback in the stage monitor system
186
3
Directional microphones
186
1
Polarity reversal (or ``phase'' reversal)
186
1
Ringing out a monitor system
187
2
Aiming monitor loudspeakers
189
1
Equipment placement
189
4
Additional monitor console placement factors
189
1
Main house mixing console placement
190
3
Section 12. Power Amplifiers
General discussion
193
1
Ohm's law & related equations
193
4
Voltage, resistance and current
193
1
Electrical power
194
1
Ohm's law chart
195
1
Electrical power and amplifier gain
196
1
Power ratings of amplifiers
197
5
FTC preconditioning
198
1
Power bandwidth
198
1
Slew rate and output power
199
1
Bridged operation
200
1
The effect of clipping
201
1
The relationship between amplifier power and SPL
202
2
Matching power amplifiers to loudspeakers
204
5
Interpreting loudspeaker power ratings
204
1
Impedance calculations
205
3
Constant-voltage distribution systems
208
1
Section 13. Loudspeakers
Introduction
209
1
Common methods of acoustic transduction
210
2
Electromagnetic transduction
210
1
Piezoelectric transduction
211
1
Low frequency drivers
212
2
Directional characteristics of cone drivers
213
1
Low frequency enclosures
214
4
Vented enclosures
215
1
Low frequency horns
216
2
High frequency drivers
218
1
High frequency horns
219
3
Crossovers
222
6
General model
222
1
Passive, high level crossovers
223
2
Active, low level crossovers
225
3
Headroom
225
2
Efficiency
227
1
Damping
227
1
Distortion
227
1
Biamp or triamp versus conventional system
227
1
Full-range loudspeakers
228
2
Effect of boundary conditions
229
1
Loudspeaker specifications
230
6
Frequency response
230
1
Power handling
231
1
Sensitivity
232
1
Impedance
233
1
Directional characteristics
234
2
Sources of distortion
236
2
Over-excursion
236
1
Intermodulation distortion
236
1
Mechanical defects
237
1
Typical failure modes
238
6
Manufacturing defects
238
1
Improper operation
239
2
Failures due to other components in the signal chain
241
3
Section 14. Signal Processing Equipment
Equalizers
244
15
General discussion
244
1
Common tone controls
244
2
Multi-band conventional equalizers
246
2
Sweep-type equalizers
248
1
Parametric equalizers
248
3
Graphic equalizers
251
3
Paragraphic equalizers
254
1
Tuning a sound system with graphic (or paragraphic) equalization
254
2
High pass and low pass filters
256
3
Reverberation and delay
259
11
Reverb chambers
261
1
Duct-type reverbs
262
1
Spring-type reverbs
262
2
Plate-type reverbs
264
1
Digital reverberation
264
2
Tape delay
266
1
Digital delay
267
2
Analog delay
269
1
Compressors & limiters
270
4
General discussion
270
1
How compressor/limiters work
271
1
Setup adjustments
272
2
Noise gates & expanders
274
3
General
274
1
Noise gate applications
275
1
Expander applications
276
1
Flangers and phasers
277
2
Flanging
277
1
Phasing
278
1
What to look for
278
1
Exciters
279
2
Section 15. Cabling
The importance of good cables
281
1
Types of cables, their construction and use
282
9
Electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding
282
1
Cable self-capacitance
283
1
Single and dual conductor shielded cables
284
3
Strain relief
287
1
Unshielded cables and speaker cables
288
1
Multicore audio cables (``snakes'')
289
2
Connectors
291
12
General
291
1
Phone plugs
291
6
Phono (pin) conncectors
297
2
XLR connectors
299
4
Section 16. Sound System Test Equipment
The volt-ohm meter
303
2
The sine wave oscillator
305
2
The oscilloscope
307
2
The phase tester
309
1
The sound pressure level meter
310
1
The real-time analyzer
311
1
The loudness monitor
312
1
Summary
312
1
Section 17. The Electronics
Basic sound system types
313
2
Sound reproduction systems
313
1
Sound reinforcement systems
314
1
Developing a logical system architecture
315
10
Functional grouping
316
1
System examples
317
8
Basic connections
325
2
Signal levels and impedance
325
1
Unbalanced and balanced connections
326
1
Grounding
327
6
Why is proper grounding important?
328
1
Ground loops
329
1
Basic grounding techniques
330
3
Using audio signal transformers
333
4
Properties and functions of signal transformers
333
2
Some practical applications
335
2
The main power source
337
5
Verify the correct mains voltage
337
1
Ensure there is a good earth ground
338
1
How to obtain a safety ground when using a two-wire outlet
339
1
Imporperly wired AC outlets: lifted grounds
339
1
Improperly wired AC outlets: lifted neutral
340
1
AC safety tips
341
1
Turn-on sequencing
341
1
Power source integrity
341
1
Configuring equipment racks
342
1
Troubleshooting
343
4
Absence of signal
343
1
Undesired signals
343
4
Section 18. the loudspeakers
Analyzing the application
347
1
The program material
347
1
The environment
348
1
Directional control
348
3
Widening dispersion
349
1
Narrowing dispersion
350
1
SPL estimations
351
1
Placement considerations
351
4
Directionality and coverage
351
2
Feedback control review
353
1
Outdoor sound systems
353
1
Controlling feedback indoors
354
1
Loudspeaker placement indoors
354
1
Connections
355
3
Wire size
355
1
Connectors
355
2
Polarity of connections
357
1
General guidelines
358
1
Setting electronic crossovers
358
6
Choice of crossover frequency and slope
358
2
Setting up the loudspeaker system
360
1
Testing and optimizing the system
361
2
High frequency driver protection networks
363
1
Use of fill systems
364
4
Balancing fill systems
368
1
Testing and Equalization
368
3
Single loudspeakers
368
1
Multiple loudspeaker systems
369
1
Room equalization
370
1
Section 19. MIDI
Interface specifications
371
4
Hardware configuration
372
1
Data structure
373
1
Channel messages
374
1
System messages
374
1
Control of musical instruments
375
7
MIDI modes
377
1
Controllers
378
1
Patch editor/librarian functions
379
1
MIDI implementation charts
380
2
MIDI sequencing
382
5
Basic theory
382
1
Channels & tracks
383
2
Hardware vs computer-based sequencers
385
1
Typical sequencer features
385
2
Song editing
386
1
Step editing
386
1
Common editing features
386
1
MIDI data processors
387
2
Thru boxes
387
1
MIDI mergers
387
1
MIDI patchers
388
1
Mapping devices
388
1
SysEx data storage
388
1
Automation through MIDI
389
2
Instrument patch changes
389
1
Signal processors
390
1
Console functions
390
1
Sync to media
391
1
Troubleshooting
391
4
Lack of response
391
1
Stuck notes
392
1
MIDI feedback
392
1
MIDI time delays
393
2
Section 20. Synchronization
General discussion
395
3
Basic theory
395
1
Pulse methods
396
1
Timepiece methods
397
1
AMPTW/EBU time code
398
8
Signal structure
398
2
Frame rates and line references
400
1
Longitudinal, vertical interval and visible time code
401
1
Machine control
402
2
Slave code error
402
1
Slave code offset
402
1
Flying offsets
403
1
Slew
403
1
Advanced transport controls
403
1
Event triggers
403
1
Time code and audio tape
404
1
Printing SMPTE time code
404
1
Copying SMPTE time code
405
1
SMPTE-to-MIDI conversion
405
1
Edit decision lists
406
6
Appendix A. Logarithms
A.1 Raising Numbers to a Power: The Key to Logs
409
1
A.2 Simple Logs (and Antilogs) to the Base 10
409
1
A.3 Less Obvious Logs to The Base 10
410
1
A.4 Mathematical Properties of Logs
411
1
A.5 One More Look At Logs and Decibels
412
1
Index