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Tables of Contents for Development Biology
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
part 1 Principles of development in biology
Developmental biology: The anatomical tradition
3
22
The Questions of Developmental Biology
4
1
Anatomical Approaches to Developmental Biology
4
1
Comparative Embryology
5
9
Epigenesis and Preformation
6
2
Naming the Parts: The Primary Germ Layers and Early Organs
8
1
The Four Principles of Karl Ernst von Baer
9
1
Fate Mapping the Embryo
10
3
Cell Migration
13
1
Evolutionary Embryology
14
3
Embryonic Homologies
15
2
Medical Embryology and Teratology
17
1
Mathematical Modeling of Development
18
4
The Mathematics of Organismal Growth
18
1
The Mathematics of Patterning
19
3
Principles of Development: Developmental Anatomy
22
1
Literature Cited
23
2
Life cycles and the evolution of developmental patterns
25
24
The Circle of Life: The Stages of Animal Development
25
2
The Frog Life Cycle
27
4
The Evolution of Developmental Patterns in Unicellular Protists
31
4
Control of Developmental Morphogenesis: The Role of the Nucleus
31
1
Unicellular Protists and the Origins of Sexual Reproduction
32
3
Multicellularity: The Evolution of Differentiation
35
9
The Volvocaceans
35
1
Sex and Individuality in Volvox
36
3
Differentiation and Morphogenesis in Dictyostelium: Cell Adhesion
39
4
Evidence and Antibodies
43
1
Developmental Patterns among the Metazoa
44
3
Diploblasts
44
1
Protostomes and Deuterostomes
44
3
Principles of Development: Life Cycles and Developmental Patterns
47
1
Literature Cited
47
2
Principles of experimental embryology
49
30
Environmental Developmental Biology
49
5
Environmental Sex Determination
50
1
Adaptation of Embryos and Larvae to Their Environments
50
4
The Developmental Mechanics of Cell Specification
54
12
Autonomous Specification
54
2
Conditional Specification
56
10
Syncytial Specification
66
1
Morphogenesis and Cell Adhesion
66
9
Differential Cell Affinity
67
2
The Thermodynamic Model of Cell Interactions
69
2
Cadherins and Cell Adhesion
71
4
Principles of Development: Experimental Embryology
75
1
Literature Cited
75
4
Genes and development: Techniques and ethical issues
79
30
The Embryological Origins of the Gene Theory
79
4
Nucleus or Cytoplasm: Which Controls Heredity?
79
2
The Split between Embryology and Genetics
81
1
Early Attempts at Developmental Genetics
82
1
Evidence for Genomic Equivalence
83
8
Metaplasia
83
1
Amphibian Cloning: The Restriction of Nuclear Potency
83
2
Amphibian Cloning: The Pluripotency of Somatic Cells
85
2
Cloning Mammals
87
1
Why Clone Mammals?
88
2
The Exception to the Rule: Immunoglobin Genes
90
1
Differential Gene Expression
91
1
RNA Localization Techniques
92
5
Northern Blotting
92
1
In Situ Hybridization
93
1
Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization
94
1
The Polymerase Chain Reaction
95
2
Determining the Function of Genes during Development
97
6
Transgenic Cells and Organisms
97
3
Human Germ Line Gene Therapy
100
2
Determining the Function of a Message: Antisense RNA
102
1
Identifying the Genes for Human Developmental Anomalies
103
2
Principles of Development: Genes and Development
105
1
Literature Cited
105
4
The genetic core of development: Differential gene expression
109
34
Differential Gene Transcription
109
16
Anatomy of the Gene: Exons and Introns
109
4
Anatomy of the Gene: Promoters and Enhancers
113
3
Transcription Factors
116
3
Studying DNA Regulatory Elements
119
3
Silencers
122
1
Locus Control Regions in Globin Genes
123
2
Methylation Pattern and the Control of Transcription
125
1
DNA Methylation and Gene Activity
125
1
Possible Mechanisms by which Methylation Represses Gene Transcription
125
1
Genomic Imprinting
126
1
Transcriptional Regulation of An Entire Chromosome: Dosage Compensation
126
4
The Mechanisms of X Chromosome Inactivation
128
2
Differential RNA Processing
130
4
Control of Early Development by Nuclear RNA Selection
130
1
Creating Families of Proteins through Differential nRNA Splicing
131
2
Differential nRNA Processing and Drosophila Sex Determination
133
1
Control of Gene Expression at the Level of Translation
134
2
Differential mRNA Longevity
134
1
Selective Inhibition of mRNA Translation
134
2
Control of RNA Expression by Cytoplasmic Localization
136
1
Epilogue: Posttranslational Gene Regulation
136
1
Principles of Development: Developmental Genetics
137
1
Literature Cited
138
5
Cell-cell communication in development
143
42
Induction and Competence
143
6
Cascades of Induction: Reciprocal and Sequential Inductive Events
145
1
Instructive and Permissive Interactions
146
2
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions
148
1
Paracrine Factors
149
4
The Fibroblast Growth Factors
150
1
The Hedgehog Family
151
1
The Wnt Family
152
1
The TGF-β Superfamily
152
1
Other Paracrine Factors
153
1
Cell Surface Receptors and Their Signal Transduction Pathways
153
12
The RTK Pathway
154
2
The RTK Pathway and Cell-to-Cell Induction
156
2
The Smad Pathway
158
1
The JAK-STAT Pathway
159
2
The Wnt Pathway
161
1
The Hedgehog Pathway
162
1
The Nature of Human Syndromes
163
2
The Cell Death Pathways
165
2
Juxtacrine Signaling
167
7
The Notch Pathway: Juxtaposed Ligands and Receptors
167
2
Cell-Cell Interactions and Chance in the Determination of Cell Types
169
1
The Extracellular Matrix as a Source of Critical Developmental Signals
170
3
Direct Transmission of Signals through Gap Junctions
173
1
Cross-Talk between Pathways
174
1
Coda
175
1
Principles of Development: Cell-Cell Communication
176
1
Literature Cited
177
8
part 2 Early embryonic development
Fertilization: Beginning a new organism
185
38
Structure of the Gametes
185
6
Sperm
185
3
The Egg
188
3
Recognition of Egg and Sperm
191
8
Sperm Attraction: Action at a Distance
191
2
The Acrosomal Reaction in Sea Urchins
193
1
Action at a Distance: Mammalian Gametes
194
2
Species-Specific Recognition in Sea Urchins
196
2
Gamete Binding and Recognition in Mammals
198
1
Gamete Fusion and the Prevention of Polyspermy
199
7
Fusion of the Egg and Sperm Plasma Membranes
199
1
The Prevention of Polyspermy
200
6
The Activation of Egg Metabolism
206
4
Early Responses
206
2
The Activation of Gamete Metabolism
208
2
Late Responses
210
1
Fusion of the Genetic Material
210
4
Fusion of Genetic Material in Sea Urchins
210
2
Fusion of Genetic Material in Mammals
212
1
The Nonequivalence of Mammalian Pronuclei
213
1
Rearrangement of the Egg Cytoplasm
214
2
Preparation for Cleavage
215
1
Snapshot Summary
216
1
Literature Cited
217
6
Early development in selected invertebrates
223
40
An Introduction to Early Developmental Processes
223
1
Cleavage
223
5
From Fertilization to Cleavage
224
1
The Cytoskeletal Mechanisms of Mitosis
225
1
Patterns of Embryonic Cleavage
226
2
Gastrulation
228
1
Axis Formation
229
1
The Early Development of Sea Urchins
229
1
Cleavage in Sea Urchins
229
5
Blastula Formation
230
1
Fate Maps and the Determination of Sea Urchin Blastomeres
231
3
Sea Urchin Gastrulation
234
7
Ingression of Primary Mesenchyme
235
3
First Stage of Archenteron Invagination
238
1
Second and Third Stages of Archenteron Invagination
239
2
The Early Development of Snails
241
1
Cleavage in Snail Eggs
241
6
Adaptation by Modifying Embryonic Cleavage
243
1
The Polar Lobe: Cell Determination and Axis Formation
244
2
Fate Map of Ilyanassa obsoleta
246
1
Gastrulation in Snails
247
1
Early Development in Tunicates
247
1
Tunicate Cleavage
247
4
The Tunicate Fate Map
248
1
Autonomous and Conditional Specification of Tunicate Blastomeres
249
1
Specification of the Embryonic Axes
250
1
Gastrulation in Tunicates
251
1
Early Development of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans
251
1
Why C. elegans?
251
2
Cleavage and Axis Formation in C. elegans
253
4
Rotational Cleavage of the C. elegans Egg
253
1
Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation
253
1
Formation of the Dorsal-Ventral and Right-Left Axes
253
1
Control of Blastomere Identity
253
1
Autonomous Specification
254
1
Conditional Specification
255
2
Gastrulation in C. elegans
257
1
Coda
257
1
Snapshot Summary
257
1
Literature Cited
258
5
The genetics of axis specification in Drosophila
263
40
Early Drosophila Development
263
1
Cleavage
264
2
The Midblastula Transition
265
1
Gastrulation
266
3
The Origins of Anterior-Posterior Polarity
269
1
The Maternal Effect Genes
270
8
Embryological Evidence of Polarity Regulation by Oocyte Cytoplasm
270
1
The Molecular Model: Protein Gradients in the Early Embryo
270
1
Evidence that the Bicoid Gradient Constitutes the Anterior Organizing Center
271
5
The Posterior Organizing Center: Localizing and Activating Nanos
276
1
The Terminal Gene Group
277
1
The Segmentation Genes
278
7
The Gap Genes
279
1
The Pair-Rule Genes
280
2
The Segment Polarity Genes
282
3
The Homeotic Selector Genes
285
5
Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression
285
1
Initiating the Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression
286
1
Maintaining the Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression
287
1
Realisator Genes
287
2
The Homeodomain Proteins
289
1
The Generation of Dorsal-Ventral Polarity
290
1
The Morphogenetic Agent for Dorsal-Ventral Polarity
290
1
The Translocation of Dorsal Protein
290
6
The Signal Cascade
291
3
Establishing the Dorsal Protein Gradient
294
2
Axes and Organ Primordia: The Cartesian Coordinate Model
296
1
Coda
297
1
Snapshot Summary
297
1
Literature Cited
298
5
Early development and axis formation in amphibians
303
36
Early Amphibian Development
303
1
Cleavage in Amphibians
303
2
Amphibian Gastrulation
305
9
The Fate Map of Xenopus
305
1
Cell Movements during Amphibian Gastrulation
306
2
The Midblastula Transition: Preparing for Gastrulation
308
1
Positioning the Blastopore
308
1
Invagination and Involution
309
2
The Convergent Extension of the Dorsal Mesoderm
311
1
Migration of the Involuting Mesoderm
312
1
Epiboly of the Ectoderm
312
1
Fibronectin and the Pathways for Mesodermal Migration
313
1
Axis Formation In Amphibians: The Phenomenon of the Organizer
314
1
The Progressive Determination of the Amphibian Axes
314
3
Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold: Primary Embryonic Induction
317
1
The Mechanisms of Axis Formation in Amphibians
318
4
The Origin of the Nieukoop Center
319
1
The Molecular Biology of the Nieuwkoop Center
319
3
The Functions of the Organizer
322
9
The Diffusible Proteins of the Organizer I: The BMP Inhibitors
324
3
BMP4 and Geoffroy's Lobster
327
1
The Diffusible Proteins of the Organizer II: The Wnt Inhibitors
328
1
Conversion of the Ectoderm into Neural Plate Cells
329
1
Competence, Bias, and Neurulation
330
1
The Regional Specificity of Induction
331
3
The Determination of Regional Differences
331
1
Molecular Correlates of Neural Caudalization
331
2
Specifying the Left-Right Axis
333
1
Snapshot Summary
334
1
Literature Cited
335
4
The early development of vertebrates: Fish, birds, and mammals
339
40
Early Development in Fish
339
1
Cleavage in Fish Eggs
339
2
Gastrulation in Fish Embryos
341
2
The Formation of Germ Layers
341
2
Axis Formation in Fish Embryos
343
2
Dorsal-Ventral Axis Formation: The Embryonic Shield
343
2
Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation: Two Signaling Centers
345
1
Left-Right Axis Formation
345
1
Early Development In Birds
345
1
Cleavage in Bird Eggs
345
2
Gastrulation of the Avian Embryo
347
3
The Hypoblast
347
1
The Primitive Streak
348
2
Epiboly of the Ectoderm
350
1
Axis Formation in the Chick Embryo
350
4
The Role of pH in Forming the Dorsal-Ventral Axis
350
1
The Role of Gravity in Forming the Anterior-Posterior Axis
351
2
Left-Right Axis Formation
353
1
Early Mammalian Development
354
1
Cleavage in Mammals
354
3
The Unique Nature of Mammalian Cleavage
354
2
Compaction
356
1
Escape from the Zona Pellucida
357
1
Gastrulation in Mammals
358
6
Modifications for Development within Another Organism
358
3
Formation of Extraembryonic Membranes
361
1
Twins
362
2
Mammalian Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation
364
5
Two Signaling Centers
364
1
Patterning the Anterior-Posterior Axis: The Hox Code Hypothesis
365
2
Expression of Hox Genes along the Dorsal Axis
367
1
Experimental Analysis of the Hox Code
367
2
The Dorsal-Ventral and Left-Right Axes in Mammals
369
3
The Dorsal-Ventral Axis
369
1
The Left-Right Axis
370
2
Snapshot Summary
372
1
Literature Cited
373
6
part 3 Later embryonic development
The central nervous system and the epidermis
379
32
Formation of the Neural Tube
379
7
Primary Neurulation
380
5
Secondary Neurulation
385
1
Differentiation of the Neural Tube
386
The Anterior-Posterior Axis
387
1
The Dorsal-Ventral Axis
388
Tissue Architecture of the Central Nervous System
378
17
Spinal Cord and Medulla Organization
390
1
Cerebellar Organization
390
2
Cerebral Organization
392
2
Adult Neural Stem Cells
394
1
Neuronal Types
395
4
Homologous Specification of Neural Tissue between Vertebrates and Arthropods
398
1
Development of the Vertebrate Eye
399
4
The Dynamics of Optic Development
400
1
Neural Retina Differentiation
401
1
Lens and Cornea Differentiation
401
2
The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures
403
3
The Origin of Epidermal Cells
403
1
Cutaneous Appendages
404
1
Patterning of Cutaneous Appendages
404
2
Snapshot Summary
406
1
Literature Cited
407
4
Neural crest cells and axonal specificity
411
36
The Neural Crest
411
2
The Trunk Neural Crest
413
4
Migration Pathways of Trunk Neural Crest Cells
413
1
The Mechanisms of Trunk Neural Crest Migration
414
1
Trunk Neural Crest Cell Differentiation
415
2
The Cranial Neural Crest
417
5
Tooth Development
420
2
The Cardiac Neural Crest
422
1
Neuronal Specification and Axonal Specificity
422
1
The Generation of Neuronal Diversity
423
2
Pattern Generation in the Nervous System
425
14
Cell Adhesion and Contact Guidance: Attractive and Permissive Molecules
426
1
Guidance by Axon-Specific Migratory Cues: The Labeled Pathways Hypothesis
426
1
Contact Guidance by Specific Growth Cone Repulsion
427
1
Guidance By Diffusible Molecules
428
3
Target Selection
431
2
Address Selection: Activity-Dependent Development
433
1
Differential Survival after Innervation: Neurotrophic Factors
434
1
Paths to Glory: Migration of the Retinal Ganglion Axons
435
3
Fetal Neurons in Adult Hosts
438
1
The Development of Behaviors: Constancy and Plasticity
439
1
Snapshot Summary
439
1
Literature Cited
440
7
Paraxial and intermediate mesoderm
447
24
Paraxial Mesoderm: The Somites and Their Derivatives
447
6
The Initiation of Somite Formation
448
3
Specification and Commitment of Somitic Cell Types
451
1
Determining Somitic Cell Fates
452
1
Myogenesis: The Development of Muscle
453
1
Specification and Differentiation by the Myogenic bHLH Proteins
453
1
Muscle Cell Fusion
453
1
Osteogenesis: The Development of Bones
454
6
Intramembranous Ossification
455
1
Endochondral Ossification
456
2
Control of Cartilage Maturation at the Growth Plate
458
1
Osteoclasts
459
1
Intermediate Mesoderm
460
6
Progression of Kidney Types
460
1
Reciprocal Interaction of Kidney Tissues
461
1
The Mechanisms of Reciprocal Induction
461
5
Snapshot Summary
466
1
Literature Cited
467
4
Lateral plate mesoderm and endoderm
471
32
Lateral Plate Mesoderm
471
1
The Heart
471
9
Specification of Heart Tissue and Fusion of Heart Rudiments
472
3
Looping and Formation of Heart Chambers
475
2
Redirecting Blood Flow in the Newborn Mammal
477
3
Formation of Blood Vessels
480
5
Constraints on How Blood Vessels May Be Constructed
480
1
Vasculogenesis: Formation of Blood Vessels from Blood Islands
481
2
Angiogenesis: Sprouting of Blood Vessels and Remodeling of Vascular Beds
483
2
The Development of Blood Cells
485
5
The Stem Cell Concept
485
1
Pluripotential Stem Cells and Hematopoietic Microenvironments
485
3
Sites of Hematopoiesis
488
2
Endoderm
490
1
The Pharynx
490
1
The Digestive Tube and Its Derivatives
491
4
Specification of the Gut Tissue
492
1
Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder
493
1
The Specification of Liver and Pancreas
494
1
The Respiratory Tube
495
1
The Extraembryonic Membranes
495
2
The Amnion and Chorion
496
1
The Allantois and Yolk Sac
497
1
Snapshot Summary
497
1
Literature Cited
498
5
Development of the tetrapod limb
503
20
Formation of the Limb Bud
504
4
Specification of the Limb Fields: Hox Genes and Retinoic Acid
504
1
Induction of the Early Limb Bud: Fibroblast Growth Factors
504
1
Specification of Forelimb or Hindlimb: Tbx4 and Tbx5
505
1
Induction of the Apical Ectodermal Ridge
506
2
Generating the Proximal-Distal Axis of the Limb
508
5
The Apical Ectodermal Ridge: The Ectodermal Component
508
1
The Progress Zone: The Mesodermal Component
509
2
Hox Genes and the Specification of the Proximal-Distal Axis
511
2
Hox Genes and the Evolution of the Tetrapod Limb
513
1
Specification of the Anterior-Posterior Limb Axis
513
2
The Zone of Polarizing Activity
513
1
Sonic Hedgehog Defines the ZPA
514
1
The Generation of the Dorsal-Ventral Axis
515
1
Coordination among the Three Axes
516
1
Cell Death and the Formation of Digits and Joints
517
2
Sculpting the Autopod
517
1
Forming the Joints
517
2
Snapshot Summary
519
1
Literature Cited
519
4
Sex determination
523
24
Chromosomal Sex Determination in Mammals
524
12
Primary and Secondary Sex Determination
524
1
The Developing Gonads
525
2
The Mechanisms of Mammalian Primary Sex Determination
527
4
Secondary Sex Determination: Hormonal Regulation of the Sexual Phenotype
531
3
Sex Determination and Behaviors
534
2
Chromosomal Sex Determination in Drosophila
536
4
The Sexual Development Pathway
536
1
The Sex-lethal Gene as the Pivot for Sex Determination
537
2
The Transformer Genes
539
1
Doublesex: The Switch Gene of Sex Determination
540
1
Environmental Sex Determination
540
2
Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles
540
1
Location-Dependent Sex Determination in Bonellia and Crepidula
541
1
Snapshot Summary
542
1
Literature Cited
543
4
Metamorphosis, regeneration, and aging
547
38
Metamorphosis: The Hormonal Reactivation of Development
547
1
Amphibian Metamorphosis
548
8
Morphological Changes Associated with Metamorphosis
548
1
Biochemical Changes Associated with Metamorphosis
549
1
Hormonal Control of Amphibian Metamorphosis
549
3
Raising Tadpoles
552
1
Molecular Responses to Thyroid Hormones during Metamorphosis
552
2
Heterochrony
554
2
Metamorphosis In Insects
556
9
Types of Insect Metamorphosis
556
1
Eversion and Differentiation of the Imaginal Discs
557
2
Determination of the Wing Imaginal Discs
559
3
Hormonal Control of Insect Metamorphosis
562
1
The Molecular Biology of Hydroxyecdysone Activity
563
2
Regeneration
565
1
Epimorphic Regeneration of Salamander Limbs
566
4
Formation of the Apical Ectodermal Cap and Regeneration Blastema
566
2
Proliferation of the Blastema Cells: The Requirement for Nerves
568
1
Pattern Formation In the Regeneration Blastema
568
2
Compensatory Regeneration in the Mammalian Liver
570
1
Morphallactic Regeneration in Hydras
570
4
Medical Advances in Regeneration
573
1
Aging: The Biology of Senescence
574
1
Maximum Life Span and Life Expectancy
574
1
Causes of Aging
575
2
Oxidative Damage
575
1
General Wear-and-Tear and Genetic Instability
576
1
Snapshot Summary
577
1
Literature Cited
578
7
The saga of the germ line
585
36
Germ Plasm and the Determination of the Primordial Germ Cells
585
4
Germ Cell Determination in Nematodes
586
1
Germ Cell Determination in Insects
587
1
Germ Cell Determination in Amphibians
588
1
Germ Cell Migration
589
6
Germ Cell Migration in Amphibians
589
1
Germ Cell Migration in Mammals
590
2
EG Cells, ES Cells, and Teratocarcinomas
592
1
Germ Cell Migration in Birds and Reptiles
593
1
Germ Cell Migration in Drosophila
593
2
Meiosis
595
4
Big Decisions: Mitosis or Meiosis? Sperm or Egg?
597
2
Spermatogenesis
599
3
Oogenesis
602
11
Oogenic Meiosis
602
1
Maturation of the Oocyte in Amphibians
603
2
Completion of Amphibian Meiosis: Progesterone and Fertilization
605
1
Gene Transcription in Oocytes
606
2
Meroistic Oogenesis in Insects
608
2
Oogenesis in Mammals
610
3
Snapshot Summary
613
1
Literature Cited
614
7
part 4 Ramifications of developmental biology
An overview of plant development
621
28
Plant Life Cycles
622
2
Gamete Production in Angiosperms
624
3
Pollen
624
2
The Ovary
626
1
Pollination
627
2
Fertilization
629
1
Embryonic Development
629
4
Experimental Studies
629
1
Embryogenesis
630
3
Dormancy
633
1
Germination
634
1
Vegetative Growth
635
4
Meristems
635
1
Root Development
636
1
Shoot Development
637
1
Leaf Development
638
1
The Vegetative-to-Reproductive Transition
639
6
Senescence
645
1
Snapshot Summary
645
1
Literature Cited
646
3
Environmental regulation of animal development
649
30
Environmental Regulation of Normal Development
649
1
Environmental Cues and Normal Development
649
3
Larval Settlement
649
1
Blood Meals
650
1
Developmental Symbiosis
650
2
Predictable Environmental Differences as Cues for Development
652
1
Seasonality and Sex in Aphids
652
1
Diapause
653
1
Gravity and Pressure
653
1
Phenotypic Plasticity: Polyphenism and Reaction Norms
653
5
Seasonal Polyphenism in Butterflies
655
1
Nutritional Polyphenism
655
1
Environment-Dependent Sex Determination
656
1
Polyphenisms for Alternative Conditions
657
1
Predator-Induced Defenses
658
2
Mammalian Immunity as a Predator-Induced Response
660
2
Genetic Assimilation
661
1
Learning: An Environmentally Adaptive Nervous System
662
2
Environmental Disruption of Normal Development
664
1
Teratogenic Agents
665
8
Retinoic Acid as a Teratogen
666
1
Alcohol as a Teratogen
667
1
Other Teratogenic Agents
668
1
Endocrine Disruptors
669
4
Genetic-Environmental Interactions
673
1
Coda
673
1
Snapshot Summary
674
1
Literature Cited
674
5
Developmental mechanisms of evolutionary change
679
31
``Unity of Type'' and ``Conditions of Existence''
679
4
Charles Darwin's Synthesis
679
1
E. B. Wilson and F. R. Lillie
680
1
``Life's Splendid Drama''
680
2
The Search for the Urbilaterian Ancestor
682
1
Hox Genes: Descent with Modification
683
7
Changes in Hox-Responsive Elements of Downstream Genes
684
1
Changes in Hox Gene Transcription Patterns within a Body Portion
684
2
Changes in Hox Gene Expression between Body Segments
686
2
Changes in Hox Gene Number
688
1
Assessing Homologies through Regulatory Gene Expression Patterns
689
1
Homologous Pathways of Development
690
3
Instructions for Forming the Central Nervous System
690
2
Limb Formation
692
1
Modularity: The Prerequisite for Evolution through Development
693
3
Dissociation: Heterochrony and Allometry
694
1
Duplication and Divergence
695
1
Co-option
696
1
Developmental Correlation
697
2
Correlated Progression
697
1
Coevolution of Ligand and Receptor
698
1
Developmental Constraints
699
3
Physical Constraints
699
1
Morphogenetic Constraints
700
1
Phyletic Constraints
700
2
Canalization and the Release of Developmental Constraints
702
1
A New Evolutionary Synthesis
702
3
Snapshot Summary
705
1
Literature Cited
706
4
Appendix I: A Partial List of Genes Active in Human Development
710
2
Sources for Chapter-Opening Quotations
712
1
Author Index
713
12
Subject Index
725