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Tables of Contents for Pollution
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control
1
31
B. Crathorne
Y. J. Rees
S. France
Introduction
1
1
Pollution Control Philosophy
2
3
Regulation of Direct Discharges
5
10
Dangerous Substances Directive
6
1
The North Sea Conferences and OSPAR
7
7
Integrated Pollution Control
14
1
Water Framework Directive
14
1
Regulation of Diffuse Sources
15
6
Product Controls
15
1
New Substances
15
1
Existing Substances
15
1
Dangerous Substances and Preparations
16
1
Pesticides
17
1
Biocides
18
1
Detergents
18
1
Controlling Land Use
18
1
Planning
19
1
Controls on Industrial Sites
19
1
Water Protection Zones
20
1
Nitrate Sensitive Areas and Vulnerable Zones
21
1
Groundwater Protection
21
1
Alternative Control Procedures
21
2
Voluntary Schemes
21
2
Information
23
1
Economic Instruments
23
1
Case Studies
23
7
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)
24
2
Oestrogenic Chemicals
26
1
Pesticides
27
1
Mercury
28
2
Conclusions
30
1
References
30
2
Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment
32
27
M. R. Preston
R. Chester
Introduction
32
1
General Features of the Oceanic Environment
33
3
Source Terms
33
1
Circulation Patterns
34
1
Sea Water Reactivity: Biogeochemical Processes
35
1
Sources, Movements and Behaviour of Individual Pollutants or Classes of Pollutant
36
19
Oil
36
1
The Composition of Crude Oil
36
1
Fluxes of Oil to the Marine Environment
36
1
The Behaviour and Fate of Spilled Oil
37
2
The Environmental Impact of Marine Oil Spills
39
1
Control and Clean-up Techniques
40
1
Oil Spill Treatment Technologies
41
1
Sewage
41
1
Problems Associated with BOD
41
2
Sewage and Nutrients
43
1
Marine Disposal of Sewage Sludge
44
1
Marine Sewage Disposal and Public Health
44
1
The European Bathing Water and Seafood Directives
45
1
Persistent Organic Compounds
45
1
Halogenated Compounds
46
2
Other Persistent Organic Compounds
48
1
Trace Metals
48
1
Mercury
49
2
Lead
51
1
Tin
52
1
Radioactivity
52
1
The Natural Radioactivity of Sea Water
52
1
Radiation Releases from Weapons Testing Programmes
53
1
Routine Releases from Nuclear Power Plants
54
1
Releases from Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plants to Marine Systems
54
1
Reactor Accidents on Land
54
1
Dumping of Low Level Waste
54
1
Naval Sources of Radioactivity to the Oceans
54
1
The Effects of Artificial Radioactivity on the Marine Environment
55
1
Conclusions
55
1
References
56
3
Drinking Water Quality and Health
59
23
J. K. Fawell
G. Stanfield
Introduction
59
1
Drinking Water Sources
60
1
Drinking Water Treatment
61
1
Sources of Contamination
62
1
Drinking Water Standards
63
1
Microbiological Quality
64
3
Chemical Contaminants
67
11
Inorganic Contaminants
67
1
Lead
67
1
Nitrate
68
3
Aluminium
71
1
Fluoride
72
1
Arsenic
72
1
Water Hardness
72
1
Other Inorganic Contaminants
73
1
Organic Contaminants
74
1
Introduction
74
1
Disinfection By-products
74
2
Pesticides
76
1
Endocrine Disrupters
76
1
PAH
77
1
Tri- and Tetrachloroethene
78
1
Conclusions
78
2
References
80
2
Water Pollution Biology
82
31
C. F. Mason
Introduction
82
2
Organic Pollution
84
3
Eutrophication
87
5
Acidification
92
4
Toxic Chemicals
96
5
Thermal Pollution
101
2
Radioactivity
103
1
Oil
104
1
Biological Monitoring of Pollution in Freshwaters
105
3
Conclusions
108
2
References
110
3
Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment
113
32
J. Lester
D. Edge
Introduction
113
4
Objectives of Sewage Treatment
114
1
The Importance of Water Re-use
115
1
Criteria for Sewage Treatment
115
2
Composition of Sewage
117
1
Sewage Treatment Processes
117
16
Preliminary Treatment
118
1
Primary Sedimentation
119
2
Secondary (Biological) Treatment
121
1
Percolating Filter
122
2
Activated Sludge
124
6
Dispersed Aeration
130
1
High-rate Activated Sludge
130
1
Conventional Activated Sludge
130
1
Extended Aeration
131
1
Contact Stabilization
131
1
Nitrification
131
1
Secondary Sedimentation
132
1
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
133
10
Sources
134
1
Recycling and Disposal Options
134
1
Pre-treatment Handling
135
1
Treatment Processes
136
1
Digestion
136
3
Lime Stabilization
139
1
Composting
140
1
Combustion
140
1
Controls
140
3
References
143
2
The Treatment of Toxic Wastes
145
24
A. James
Introduction
145
1
Sources and Types of Toxic Wastes
146
2
Toxicity Problems in the Collection System
148
1
Pre-treatment of Toxic Wastes
148
4
Primary and Secondary Treatment
152
4
Passive Treatment
156
1
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
157
1
Disposal of Toxic Wastes
158
2
Industrial Waste Treatment - Case Studies
160
7
Tannery Wastes
160
3
Metal Processing Wastes
163
3
Ion Exchange
166
1
Evaporation
166
1
Molecular Filtration
166
1
Solvent Extraction
167
1
Electrodialysis
167
1
References
167
2
Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements
169
25
R. M. Harrison
Introduction
169
1
Specific Air Pollutants
170
18
Sulfur Dioxide
170
1
Measurements of Sulfur Dioxide
171
1
Suspended Particulate Matter
171
2
Black Smoke
173
1
Gravimetrically Determined Particulate Matter: PM10
174
5
Oxides of Nitrogen
179
2
Measurement of Oxides of Nitrogen
181
1
Carbon Monoxide
182
1
Measurement of Carbon Monoxide
182
2
Hydrocarbons
184
1
Measurement of Hydrocarbons
185
1
Secondary Pollutants: Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate
185
1
Ozone
185
1
Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)
186
2
Air Quality Management
188
3
Indoor Air Quality
191
1
Appendix
191
1
Air Pollutant Concentration Units
191
1
Example 1
192
1
Example 2
192
1
References
192
2
Chemistry and Climate Change in the Troposphere
194
26
R. M. Harrison
Introduction
194
5
Pollutant Cycles
195
4
Atmospheric Chemical Transformations
199
1
The Importance of the Hydroxyl Radical (OH)
199
1
Atmospheric Oxidants
200
7
Formation of Ozone
200
3
Polluted Atmospheres
203
1
Formation of PAN
204
1
NOy Compounds
205
2
Atmospheric Acids
207
4
Weak Acids
207
1
Strong Acids
207
1
Sulfuric Acid
207
2
Nitric Acid
209
1
Hydrochloric Acid
210
1
Methanesulfonic Acid (MSA)
211
1
Atmospheric Bases
211
1
Atmospheric Aerosols and Rainwater
212
4
Atmospheric Particles
212
2
Rainwater
214
2
Atmospheric Composition and Climate Change
216
2
References
218
2
Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere
220
26
A. R. MacKenzie
Introduction
220
3
Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry
223
8
Gas Phase Chemistry
223
4
Heterogeneous Chemistry
227
4
Natural Sources of Trace Gases
231
1
Anthropogenic Sources of Trace Gases
232
2
Direct Injection of Pollutants into the Stratosphere
233
1
Antarctic Ozone
234
4
Arctic Ozone
238
1
Mid-latitude Ozone
239
1
Global Modelling of Ozone
240
2
Legislation
242
1
Summary
243
1
References
244
2
Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of Air Pollution
246
22
M. L. Williams
Introduction
246
1
Dispersion and Transport in the Atmosphere
247
5
Mechanical Turbulence
247
1
Turbulence and Atmospheric Stability
247
2
Mixing Heights
249
2
Building and Topographical Effects
251
1
Removal Processes - Dry and Wet Deposition
252
1
Modelling of Air Pollution Dispersion
252
14
Modelling in the Near Field
253
4
Emission Inventories
257
4
Long Range Transport
261
1
Operational Models
262
2
Accuracy of Models
264
2
References
266
2
The Health Effects of Air Pollution
268
28
S. Walters
J. Ayres
Introduction
268
3
Exposure and Target Organ Dose
268
1
Factors Affecting Exposure
268
1
What Is a Health Effect?
269
1
Time Scales of Exposure-Effect Relationships
269
1
Confounding Factors
270
1
Studying the Health Effects of Air Pollution
271
4
Experimental Studies
272
1
Controlled-chamber Experiments
272
1
Epidemiological Studies
273
1
Short-term Studies
273
1
Long-term Studies
273
1
Estimating Public Health Effect
274
1
Health Effects of Particulate Matter
275
3
Experimental Studies
275
1
Ecological Epidemiological Studies
276
1
Epidemiological Panel Studies
277
1
Long-term Epidemiological Studies
277
1
Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide
278
2
Experimental Studies
278
1
Physiological Studies
278
1
Ecological Epidemiological Studies
279
1
Epidemiological Panel Studies
279
1
Long-term Epidemiological Studies
280
1
Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide
280
2
Experimental Studies
280
1
Physiological Studies
280
1
Ecological Epidemiological Studies
281
1
Epidemiological Panel Studies
281
1
Long-term Epidemiological Studies
281
1
Health Effects of Ozone
282
2
Experimental Studies
282
1
Physiological Studies
282
1
Ecological Epidemiological Studies
283
1
Epidemiological Panel Studies
283
1
Long-term Epidemiological Studies
283
1
Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide
284
2
Experimental Studies
284
1
Physiological Studies
284
1
Ecological Epidemiological Studies
285
1
Long-term Epidemiological Studies
285
1
Air Pollution and Cancer
286
3
Problems in Studying Air Pollution and Cancer
286
1
Airborne Carcinogens
287
1
Benzene and Leukaemia
287
1
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Lung Cancer
288
1
Conclusions
289
1
Suggestions for Further Reading
290
1
References
290
6
Impacts of Gaseous Pollutants on Crops, Trees and Ecosystems
296
31
T. A. Mansfield
P. W. Lucas
Introduction
296
3
Current Knowledge of the Mechanism of Action of Some Major Air Pollutants
299
11
Sulfur Dioxide
299
3
Nitrogenous Pollutants
302
1
Responses to Gaseous NOx
303
3
Ozone
306
2
Acid Rain and Acid Mist
308
2
Interactions Between Pollutants
310
2
SO2 and NO2
310
1
SO2 and O3
311
1
O3 and CO2
312
1
Pollutant/Stress Interations
312
9
Biotic Factors
313
2
Abiotic or Environmental Factors
315
1
Low Temperatures
315
2
Water Deficits
317
4
Air Pollution and Forest Health
321
1
Critical Loads and Critical Levels
321
1
References
322
5
Control of Pollutant Emissions From Road Traffic
327
25
C. Holman
Introduction
327
3
Road Transport Emissions
330
1
Fuel Choice and Emissions
331
5
Introduction
331
1
Petrol and Diesel
332
1
Alternative Fuels
332
3
Summary
335
1
Controlling Emissions
336
5
Introduction
336
1
Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions
337
2
Reducing Regulated Emissions
339
1
Petrol
339
1
Diesel
340
1
Exhaust After-treatment
341
5
Introduction
341
1
Three-way Catalysts
341
2
Diesel Oxidation Catalyst
343
1
HC Adsorber
343
1
Particulate Traps
344
1
De-NOx Technologies
345
1
Fuel Quality
346
3
Introduction
346
1
Impact of Sulfur on Emissions
347
1
Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE)
348
1
Effect of Technology on PM Emissions
349
1
References
350
2
Soil Pollution and Land Contamination
352
26
B. J. Alloway
Introduction
352
1
Soil Pollutants and their Sources
353
7
Heavy Metals
353
1
Sources of Heavy Metals
354
1
Hydrocarbon Pollutants
355
1
Sources of Hydrocarbon Pollutants
355
1
Toxic Organic Micropollutants (TOMPs) (also called Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs))
356
2
Other Industrial Chemicals
358
1
Nutrient-rich Wastes
358
1
Radionuclides
359
1
Pathogenic Organisms
359
1
Transport Mechanisms Conveying Pollutants to Soils
360
1
The Nature and Properties of Soils Related to the Behaviour of Pollutants
360
6
The Nature of Soils
360
2
Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils Affecting the Behaviour of Pollutants
362
2
Comparison Between Soils of Rural and Industrial Sites
364
1
Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Soils
364
2
The Consequences of Soil Pollution
366
6
Soil Analyses and Their Interpretation
367
1
Methods of Soil Chemical Analysis
367
1
Soil Quality Standards for the Interpretation of Soil Analytical Data
368
Hazards Associated with Soil Pollutants
268
100
Remediation of Contaminated Soils
368
4
Case Studies of Contaminated Industrial Land
372
3
Former Gasworks Sites
372
1
Sites Contaminated with Solvents
373
1
Lead and Arsenic Pollution in the Town of Mundelstrup in Denmark
373
1
Pollution from a Pb-Zn Smelter at Zlantna, Romania
374
1
Cadmium Pollution in the Village of Shipham in England and the Jinzu Valley in Toyama Province, Japan
374
1
Conclusions
375
1
References
376
2
Solid Waste Management
378
33
G. Eduljee
D. Arthur
Introduction
378
1
An Integrated Approach to Waste Management
379
2
The Waste Management Hierarchy
379
1
An Integrated Approach
380
1
Technical Options for Waste Prevention and Recycling
381
3
Opportunities for Waste Avoidance and Minimization
381
1
Domestic Sector
382
1
Commercial and Industrial Sectors
382
1
Collection and Sorting
383
1
Source Separation
383
1
Bring Systems
384
1
Policy Options to Make Waste Prevention and Recycling Work in Practice
384
11
Introduction
384
1
Producer Responsibility
385
1
Principles
385
2
Waste Packaging
387
1
The Proposed WEEE Directive
388
1
Eco-labelling
389
1
Charges and Economic Incentives
390
1
Grants and Subsidies
390
1
Recycling Credits
391
1
Preferential Purchase Policies
392
1
Taxes and Tradeable Permits
392
1
Persuasion Measures
393
1
Take Back Requirements
393
1
Product Charges and Product Taxes
393
1
Refunds
394
1
Compulsory Collection and Recycling
394
1
Integrated Product Policy (IPP)
394
1
Bulk Waste Reduction Technologies and Final Disposal
395
7
Mass Burn Incineration
396
1
Other Thermal Processes
397
1
Composting
398
1
Landfilling
399
1
Environmental Considerations
400
1
Waste Incineration
400
1
Composting
401
1
Landfilling
401
1
Integrated Waste Management Strategies
402
7
Revisiting the Waste Management Hierarchy
402
1
Principles and Stages of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
403
3
Waste Management Strategy for Gloucestershire
406
2
Recycling and Recovry of Plastics in Germany
408
1
Conclusions
409
1
References
409
2
Clean Technologies and Industrial Ecology
411
34
R. Clift
Introduction: Changing Paradigms
411
1
Environmental System Analysis
412
10
Economy and Environment
412
2
Life Cycle Assessment
414
3
Goal and Scope Definition
417
1
Inventory Analysis
417
1
Impact Assessment
418
2
Interpretation
420
1
Legislation and Regulation
420
2
Clean Technology
422
9
Clean-up, End-of-Pipe and Clean Technologies
422
1
Distinctions
422
1
An Example: Power Generation
423
1
Regulation as a Driver for Clean Technology
424
1
Improvement Thresholds
425
1
Process Inefficiencies and `Profligate Environmentalism'
426
1
Cleaner Production
427
1
Waste Reduction
427
1
Technology and Raw Material Changes
427
1
Redesigning the Life Cycle
428
1
Service Provision and Dematerialization
429
2
Indusrial Ecology
431
10
Material and Energy Recovery From Waste
431
1
LCA and Integrated Waste Management
431
2
Burn or Recycle?
433
1
Transport
434
1
Cascaded and Metabolized Use of Materials
434
1
Industrial Ecology
434
2
An Example: Plastics
436
2
Manufactured Goods
438
1
Legislative and Economic Drivers
438
3
Conclusions: Clean Technology and Sustainable Development
441
1
References
441
4
The Environmental Behaviour of Persistent Organic Pollutants
445
29
S. Harrad
Introduction
445
6
Definition of POPs
446
1
Scope
447
1
Chemical Structure and Nomenclature
447
1
PCDD/Fs
447
1
PCBs
447
1
PAHs
448
1
OCPs
448
2
Other POPs
450
1
Adverse Effects
451
4
Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs)
451
2
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
453
1
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
454
1
Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
454
1
Other POPs
455
1
Measurement Techniques
455
4
Sampling Methodology
455
1
Air Sampling
456
1
Soil Sampling
457
1
Water Sampling
458
1
Analytical Methodology
458
1
PCDD/Fs
458
1
PCBs
458
1
PAHs
459
1
OCPs
459
1
Other POPs
459
1
Sources
459
7
PCDD/Fs
460
2
PCBs
462
1
PAHs
463
2
OCPs
465
1
Other POPs
466
1
Important Physicochemical Properties and Their Influence on Environmental Behaviour
466
4
Equilibrium Partitioning Coefficients
466
1
KOW
466
1
KOC
467
1
KOA
467
1
Henry's Law Constant
468
1
Aqueous Solubility
468
1
Environmental Persistence
468
1
Vapour Pressure
469
1
General Comments
469
1
Modelling Environmental Behaviour
470
2
The Fugacity Concept
470
1
Equilibrium Partitioning Modelling Approaches
471
1
References
472
2
Radioactivity in the Environment
474
26
C. N. Hewitt
Introduction
474
1
Radiation and Radioactivity
474
9
Types of Radiation
474
2
The Energy Changes of Nuclear Reactions
476
1
Rates of Radioactive Decay
477
1
Activity
478
1
Radioactive Decay Series
478
1
Production of Artificial Radionuclides
478
1
Nuclear Fission
479
1
Beta Decay of Fission Products
480
1
Units of Radiation Dose
481
1
Absorbed Dose
481
1
Dose Equivalent
482
1
Effective Dose Equivalents
482
1
Collective Effective Dose Equivalents
482
1
Biological Effects of Radiation
483
1
General Effects
483
1
Biological Availability and Residence Times
483
1
Natural Radioactivity
484
3
Cosmic Rays
484
1
Terrestrial Gamma Radiation
485
1
Radon and its Decay Products
485
1
Radioactivity in Food and Water
486
1
Medical Applications of Radioactivity
487
1
Pollution from Nuclear Weapons Explosions
487
2
Pollution from Electric Power Generation Plant and Other Nuclear Reactors
489
8
Emissions Resulting from Normal Reactor Operation
489
1
Uranium Mining and Concentration
489
1
Purification, Enrichment, and Fuel Fabrication
490
1
Reactor Operation
490
2
Pollution Following Reactor Accidents
492
1
Windscale, 1957
492
1
Kyshtym, 1957
492
1
Idaho Falls, 1961
492
1
Three Mile Island, 1979
493
1
Chernobyl, 1986
493
2
Radioactive Waste Treatments and Disposal
495
1
Low Level Waste
495
1
Intermediate Level Waste
496
1
High Level Waste
496
1
Fuel Reprocessing
496
1
Pollution from Non-nuclear Processes
497
1
Bibliography
498
2
Health Effects of Environmental Chemicals
500
24
P. T. C. Harrison
Introduction
500
1
Catastrophic Exposure
501
2
Seveso
501
2
Bhopal
503
1
Localized Contamination Incidents
503
7
Toxic Oil Syndrome
504
1
Rice Oil Contamination by Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
505
1
Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) in Cattle Feed
506
1
Mercury Poisoning in Minamata and Niigata
507
1
Methylmercury Poisoning in Iraq
508
1
Aluminium Contamination of Drinking Water in North Cornwall
508
1
`Epping Jaundice' - Chemical Contamination of Food During Storage
509
1
Love Canal
509
1
Generalized Environmental Pollution
510
9
Indoor Air Pollution
510
1
Carbon Monoxide
511
1
Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS)
512
1
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
512
1
Formaldehyde
513
1
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
513
1
Metals
513
2
Asbestos and Man-made Mineral Fibres (MMMF)
515
1
Pesticides
516
1
Endocrine Disrupters
517
2
Conclusions
519
1
References
520
4
The Legal Control of Pollution
524
24
R. Macrory
The Function of Law in Relation to Pollution
524
2
Sources of Law
526
6
National Law
526
1
European Community Legislations
527
4
International Obligations
531
1
The Role of Civil Remedies
532
2
Three Legal Models of Pollution Regulation
534
6
Integrated Licencing
534
2
Water Pollution
536
3
Noise and Other Forms of Statutory Nuisance
539
1
Trends and Issues in Pollution Legislation
540
6
Land Use and Planning and Pollution Control
540
1
Human Rights
541
1
A Specialist Environmental Court?
542
1
Public Information and Participation
543
1
Devolution and Environmental Decision-making
544
1
Towards More Sustainable Pollution Control
545
1
References
546
2
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
548
15
D. Slater
Introduction
548
1
Integrated Pollution Control - IPC - in Theory
549
6
IPC in Practice
555
4
How Good Was the Law?
555
1
How Big Is IPC?
556
1
How Effective Were the Regulators?
556
1
How Did Industry's Approach to Environmental Management Change as a Result of IPC?
557
1
Transparency
558
1
Cost Recovery
559
1
How Have the General Public, and the Pressure Groups That Represent Them, Responded to IPC?
559
1
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control - What Price the Extra P?
559
2
Conclusions
561
1
What about the Downside?
562
1
References
562
1
Subject Index
563