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Tables of Contents for Quantitative X-Ray Spectrometry
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface to the Second Edition
iii
Preface to the First Edition
v
Introduction
1
5
Early Development of X-ray Emission Analysis
1
1
Basis of Qualitative X-ray Emission Analysis
2
1
Quantitative Analysis
3
1
Types of X-ray Spectrometers
4
1
Use of the X-ray Spectrometer in the Routine Analytical Laboratory
5
1
References
5
1
The Interaction of X-rays with Matter
6
34
Introduction
6
1
Interaction of X-ray Photons with a Single Free Electron
7
1
Interaction of X-ray Photons with Atomic Electrons
8
1
Incoherent Scattering from Atoms
9
1
Scattering from Atomic Aggregates
10
2
The Energy and Wavelength of Incoherently Scattered Radiation
12
1
Photoelectric Interaction
13
1
The Mass Attenuation Coefficient
14
6
The Primary Fluoresced Intensity
20
11
Primary and Secondary Absorption Effects
31
2
Enhancement and Third-Element Effects
33
1
Effects of Scatter in Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
34
3
Polarization of X-rays
37
3
References
38
2
Sources for the Excitation of Characteristic X-rays
40
43
Introduction
40
2
Broadband Excitation with the Sealed X-ray Tube
42
11
Monochromatic Excitation Using X-ray Tubes
53
14
Significance of Drift in the X-ray Generator
67
6
Excitation with Radioisotopes
73
5
Electron Excitation
78
1
Use of Synchrotron Source Radiation
79
1
Excitation by Protons
80
3
References
81
2
Instrumentation
83
129
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometers and Their Major Components
83
4
Dispersion, Detection, and Counting with a Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer
87
36
The Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer
123
35
Energy Discrimination with Balanced Filters
158
2
Counting Statistics with Zero Deadtime
160
12
The Systematic Error Caused by Deadtime
172
18
Counting Statistics with a Finite Deadtime
190
7
Practical Methods for Deadtime Correction
197
2
Measurement of a Characteristic Line Intensity
199
8
Sensitivity of the X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
207
5
References
209
3
Statistics
212
29
Introduction
212
1
Statistical Theory
213
3
Distribution Functions
216
1
Statistical Testing of Hypothesis
217
6
Least-Squares Curve Fittings
223
4
Analysis of Variance and Experimental Design
227
10
Sources of Error in X-ray Spectrochemical Analysis
237
4
References
239
2
General Computer Applications and Quantitative Spectrum Analysis as Applied to Energy-Dispersive Analysis
241
30
Introduction
241
1
Evolution of the Computer-Controlled X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
242
4
Types of Computer Systems
246
3
Computer Programming Languages
249
1
Introduction to Quantitative Spectrum Analysis
250
1
Smoothing
251
2
Simple Background Subtraction Methods
253
1
Least-Squares Fitting of the Background
254
2
Background Correlator Functions
256
3
Simple Treatment of Peak Overlaps
259
5
Least-Squares Fitting of Peaks
264
2
Determining Peak Shapes
266
3
Other Techniques
269
2
References
269
2
Specimen Preparation
271
28
Introduction
271
3
General Approach to Specimen Preparation
274
4
Preparation of Solid Specimens
278
16
Liquids
294
5
References
297
2
Qualitative Analysis
299
23
Introduction
299
1
Qualitative Identification: General Discussion
299
2
Nomenclature of X-ray Lines
301
1
Qualitative Analysis by Wavelength Dispersion
301
7
Qualitative Analysis by Energy Dispersion
308
12
Semiquantitative Analysis
320
2
References
320
2
Problems in Quantitative Analysis
322
22
Introduction
322
2
Measurement of X-ray Intensity
324
9
Elemental Interactions in Homogeneous Specimens
333
5
Preparation of the Calibration Curve
338
6
References
343
1
Methods and Models for Quantitative Analysis
344
44
Introduction
344
1
Provision and Choice of Standard Reference Materials
345
1
Types of Quantitative Methods for the Analysis of Homogeneous Materials
345
3
Type-One Methods: Ignoring Matrix Effects
348
5
Type-Two Methods: Minimization of Matrix Effects
353
4
Type-Three Methods: Compensation for Matrix Effects
357
7
Type-Four Methods: Mathematical Correction for Matrix Effects
364
19
Check of the Effectiveness of a Correction Method
383
5
References
387
1
Trace Analysis
388
41
Trace Concentrations and Specimens of Limited Quantity
388
1
Counting Statistics near the Lower Limit of Detectability
389
19
Sources of Background
408
5
Methods for Improving Detection Limits
413
7
Samples of Limited Quantity
420
2
Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry
422
1
Interfering Peaks
423
1
Quantitative Models for Trace Analysis
424
5
References
427
2
Radiation Health Hazards in X-ray Spectrometry
429
10
Introduction
429
1
Units of Measurement for Ionizing Radiation
430
1
The Potential Health Hazard
430
2
Enforcement of Safety Regulations
432
1
Monitoring of X-radiation
432
5
Use of Film Badges
437
1
Location of X-ray Spectrometers
437
2
References
438
1
Applications of X-ray Spectrometry
439
22
Introduction
439
1
General Applications of X-ray Spectrometry
440
1
Analysis by Type Standardization
441
1
Applications to the Analysis of Metals and Alloys
442
1
Application in Mineral and Ore Extraction
443
2
Analysis of Ceramic Materials
445
1
Applications in Archeometry
445
2
Application to the Analysis of Catalysts
447
2
Use of Combined X-ray Fluorescence and X-ray Diffraction Data
449
1
Applications in Forensic Science
450
2
Applications to Environmental Studies
452
1
Analysis of Trace Metals in Natural Waters
453
3
Analysis of Small Amounts of Sample
456
5
References
458
3
Appendix 1 Nomenclature
461
2
Appendix 2 Mass Absorption Coefficients
463
4
Appendix 3 Conversions and Physical Constants
467
2
Appendix 4 Atomic Weights and Densities
469
2
Appendix 5 Atomic Wavelengths and Energies
471
2
Appendix 6 Wavelength Tables for K, L, and M Series
473
6
Index
479