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Tables of Contents for Media Performance
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xv
Part I MASS COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY
Public Communication and Public Interest: Contested Territory
1
9
Mass Communication in the information society
1
1
Ideas of the `public' and of public communication
2
1
Mass media and the public interest
3
2
The rise of a public sphere: from communication `warfare' to `welfare'
5
3
Unitary beginnings
5
1
Growth of public communication
5
1
The first age of printing
5
1
The early industrial age
6
1
The age of mass media
7
1
Conflicts over `communication welfare'
8
1
Shifting frontier between freedom and control
9
1
Media Performance: Traditions of Enquiry
10
10
Looking for quality criteria
10
1
Other approaches to evaluating the media
11
4
Organizational efficiency
12
1
Media effect model
12
1
Marxist--critical approach
13
1
Media cultural studies approach
13
1
Social cost-benefit analysis
14
1
Media ethics approach
14
1
A distinctive approach to media assessment
15
2
Origins
15
1
Defining characteristics
16
1
Aims and plan of the book
17
3
The `Public Interest' in Communication
20
15
Conceptual clarification
20
3
Lessons of economic regulation
21
1
Typologies of the public interest idea
22
1
Preponderance theory
22
1
Common interest theory
23
1
Unity theory
23
1
The special case of mass communication
23
2
A compromise proposal
25
1
A framework for identifying public interest claims
26
4
Media policy debates: past and present
30
1
Media policy as a source of norms for performance
30
2
A summary of mid-twentieth century policy issues
32
1
Varieties of national expression of media norms
33
2
Part II MEDIA PERFORMANCE NORMS
Performance Norms in Media Policy Discourse: The Newspaper Press
35
14
Policies for freedom and democracy
35
1
The USA: basic principles of policy
36
1
The newspaper press in the United States
37
2
Canada: press policy for democracy and cultural identity
39
2
Press policy in Britain
41
2
The continental European contribution
43
3
Sweden: support for the political role of the press
43
1
Other national experience: France, Germany and The Netherlands
44
2
Norms for international news
46
1
Changing status of the press
47
2
Performance Norms in Media Policy Discourse: Broadcasting
49
16
Media on a leash
49
1
The USA: regulating the airwaves
49
4
Canadian broadcasting: multiculturalism and autonomy
53
2
British broadcasting policy: from public service to consumerism?
55
4
Varied national experience in Europe
59
4
Germany: democracy, regionalism and cultural obligations
59
2
Sweden: support for culture and politics
61
1
The Netherlands and elsewhere: support for `pluriformity'
61
1
Additional goals in European media policy: identity and access
62
1
New rules for European television
63
1
A wider policy debate
63
2
A Framework of Principle for Media Assessment
65
16
Four (or more) theories of the press
65
1
Basic communication values: a proposal
66
2
Freedom as a public communication value
68
3
Equality as a public communication value
71
2
Values of order and culture
73
4
An overall framework of communication norms
77
1
Other perspectives on media performance
78
3
Part III RESEARCH MODELS AND METHODS
Media Organizational Performance: Models and Research Options
81
18
Obstacles to performance as viewed from within
81
2
Normative responses to organizational pressures
83
4
Relations with sources and selection decisions
83
1
Response to economic pressure and support
84
1
Relations with the wider society: public interest or self-interest?
85
1
Relations with the audience
86
1
Autonomy as a recurrent theme
86
1
A media organization model
87
4
Market structure
87
2
Media organizational conduct
89
1
Media organizational performance
90
1
Informational feedback for media and society
90
1
Variants of media organizational form
91
4
The newspaper press model
91
1
The broadcast model
92
1
The book model
93
1
The common carrier model
94
1
The basic logic of social research into media performance
95
1
Strategic research options: choice of level and of explanatory variables
96
2
Inter-media comparisons
98
1
Multiple methods needed
98
1
Part IV MEDIA FREEDOM
Concepts and Models of Media Freedom
99
13
Degrees of freedom
99
2
Questions of structure
99
1
Questions of organizational conduct
100
1
Components of the press freedom idea
101
1
Four editorial models of media freedom
102
4
The press market model of editorial freedom
103
1
The broadcasting editorial model
104
1
The book market model
105
1
Common carriage
106
1
Varying conditions of constraint: finance and freedom
106
2
Variable claims to freedom: information versus art; fiction versus reality
108
2
Extending the normative framework
110
2
Media Freedom: From Structure to Performance
112
14
Conditions of freedom of structure
112
1
Seeking signs of independent performance
113
2
Does monopoly affect content?
115
2
Proprietorial versus editorial freedom
117
3
Evidence from editors
118
1
The case of electoral politics
118
1
Other evidence of owner influence
119
1
The media as watch-dog and critic of government
120
4
Applied research into the critical role of the media
121
1
The active editorial role
122
1
Conflict reporting as an indicator of freedom
123
1
Investigative reporting
124
1
Structure and performance only weakly linked
124
2
Media Freedom: The Organizational Environment
126
15
Conduct and performance: perceptions of autonomy
126
1
Relations with routine news sources
127
1
Public relations as source
128
1
Media self-origination of content
129
1
Powerful sources
130
1
War and patriotism
131
2
Other options for assessment
133
1
Advertiser pressure
133
3
Effects of advertising on structure and content
133
2
Advertising pressure and editorial autonomy
135
1
Journalists and the audience as sources of evidence
136
1
Pressures from advocates and special interest groups
136
2
The audience view of media freedom
138
1
Modest achievements, limited knowledge
139
2
Part V DIVERSITY
Varieties and Processes of Diversity
141
19
The diversity principle
141
1
Alternative interpretations of media diversity and its benefits
142
2
Media diversity: three standards of performance
144
1
Diversity as reflection
144
1
Diversity as access
144
1
Diversity as more channels and choice for the audience
145
1
Conceptual overlaps
145
1
Sub-concepts of media diversity
145
5
External versus internal diversity
145
1
External diversity
145
1
Internal diversity
146
1
Equal versus proportional reflection and access
147
1
Equality of access
147
1
Proportionality
148
1
Quantitative versus qualitative diversity of treatment
149
1
Diversity as consumer choice: the horizontal/vertical distinction
149
1
The inter-relation of concepts
150
1
Alternative dimensions of media diversity
150
2
The political dimension
150
1
The geographical dimension
151
1
The social/cultural dimension of diversity
152
1
Delivering media diversity: two basic models
152
3
The market model
153
1
The non-market (public policy) model
154
1
Options in diversity research
155
4
Source diversity
155
1
Channel diversity
156
1
Diversity of content `as sent'
157
1
Diversity of content `as received'
157
1
Receiver/audience diversity
158
1
The main questions for diversity assessment research
159
1
Taking the Measure of Diversity: Media Reflection
160
11
Reflective diversity and media structure
160
2
Political reflection in media structure
160
1
Local and regional media diversity
161
1
Media structure and class structure
162
1
Reflective diversity and media content
162
5
Reflecting political divisions
163
1
Social life reflected in media content
164
1
Race and ethnicity reflected in media content
165
1
Women in the media
166
1
The representation of work and social status
166
1
A distorted reflection of the world?
167
1
Reflective diversity and the media audience
167
2
Reflections on reflection
169
1
On not being too literal
170
1
Media Access and Audience Choice
171
12
Diversity as access: questions of structure
171
1
Diversity of access in media content
172
3
Political access and inter-channel difference
172
1
Duplication of news content
173
1
Balance and direction of access
174
1
Hegemonic tendencies in media content
174
1
Access and the audience
175
1
Diversity as variety and choice for the audience
175
5
Assessing reader choice
176
1
Viewer and listener choice
176
2
Vertical versus horizontal diversity
178
1
Methodological limitations
179
1
Audience diversity
180
1
No end in sight
181
2
Part VI OBJECTIVITY
Concepts of Objectivity
183
13
The trouble with the notion
183
1
The meaning of news objectivity for news people
184
2
Sources of the objectivity norm
186
1
Objections to objectivity
187
2
Its impossibility
187
1
Its undesirability
188
1
Non-objective news
189
2
Human interest and news
189
1
Partisanship and advocacy
190
1
Investigative news
191
1
The objectivity--bias polarity
191
4
A typology of news bias
193
1
Partisanship
193
1
The case of propaganda
193
1
Unwitting bias
194
1
Ideology
194
1
Objectivity less obscure
195
1
A Framework for Objectivity Research
196
9
Westerstahl's model
196
1
Cognitive (information quality) aspects
197
3
Factuality and cognate terms
197
1
The standard of relevance
197
1
Alternative sources of relevance criteria
198
1
Absolute (normative) standards of relevance
199
1
Real world indicators
199
1
The audience as guide
199
1
Journalistic criteria of relevance
199
1
Relevance versus sensationalism
200
1
Evaluative (impartiality) aspects
200
2
Balance
201
1
Neutrality
201
1
Objectivity is always relative
202
3
Measuring Objectivity: News as Information
205
18
The factual component of objective performance
205
8
Factualness
205
1
Information value
206
1
Readability
206
1
Checkability
206
1
Accuracy
207
1
Verification of facts against a `reality' record
207
1
Source or subject perception of accuracy
208
1
Eye-witness comparisons
208
1
Audience assessment of accuracy
209
1
Credibility
209
1
`Internal' accuracy
210
1
Completeness
210
1
Reference to event records
210
1
Fullness/range of coverage
211
1
Quantitative adequacy
211
1
Information delivery and news comprehension
212
1
`Relevance' aspects of objective performance
213
9
Indicators of relevance in news
213
1
Normative approaches to assessing relevance
214
1
Requirements for democracy
215
1
Sensationalism and human interest as problems
216
1
Professional judgement as source of relevance criteria
216
1
News selection
217
1
News values
217
1
`Significance' versus `interest' as factors in judgement
218
1
The audience as a guide to relevance assessment
218
2
`Real world' indicators and institutional agendas
220
1
Divergent audience realities
220
1
Institutional agendas
221
1
Mass communication, crisis and risk
221
1
Diversity of relevance
222
1
Measuring Objectivity: The Evaluative Dimension of News
223
14
News as values
223
1
The impartiality component of objective news performance
223
1
Balance
224
8
Balance in election campaigns
225
1
Evaluative direction in news accounts
226
2
External tests of balance in coverage
228
1
Source bias
228
2
Semantic and discourse bias
230
1
Evaluative structures (frames) of meaning
231
1
`Preferred reading' in news
232
1
Neutral presentation
232
3
Sensationalism
233
1
Formats and visuals in TV news
233
1
Stereotypes, juxtaposition and linkages
234
1
The audience view of balance and neutrality
235
1
Ifs and buts
236
1
Part VII MASS MEDIA, ORDER AND SOCIAL CONTROL
Media and the Maintenance of Public Order
237
14
Concepts of order and their assessment
237
2
A framework for performance research
239
1
Divergent expectations concerning social control
239
1
Limited war situations and the mass media
240
4
Civil disturbance
244
3
The case of terrorism
247
2
Communication values give way to power
249
2
Policing the Symbolic Environment
251
12
An intermediate zone of control
251
1
Media, crime and violence
251
4
Mass media as perceived cause of crime
252
1
Images of crime
252
1
Measuring media violence
253
2
Norms for portraying violence
255
1
Socialization and consensus
255
3
The cultivation process
256
1
Symbolic reward and punishment
256
1
Conformity and deviance
257
1
Questions of taste and morality
258
4
Issues of proscribed (`non-cultural') content
259
1
Representation of sex
259
1
Violence
260
1
Commercialism in media content
260
1
Blasphemy and bad language
261
1
Other causes of cultural offence
261
1
Absence of consensus
262
1
Solidarity and Social Identity
263
12
Media and solidarity
263
1
Mass media and social identity
263
6
Counter-cultures and the media
265
1
Ethnic minorities and the media
265
1
Women and mass media
266
1
Local media and local identity
267
2
Solidarity: the empathy factor
269
4
The international dimension of media empathy
271
2
Media follow rather than lead
273
2
Part VIII MEDIA AND CULTURE
Questions of Culture and Mass Communication
275
15
Protecting cultural quality
275
1
Culture and society: fragmentation and relativism
276
1
Principles of cultural policy for the media
277
1
Hierarchy
277
1
Equality
277
1
Cultural identity
277
1
Taste and morality
278
1
Agents and claimants
278
1
Cultural institutions
278
1
Cultural industries
278
1
Political interests
278
1
Pressure groups
279
1
From cultural politics to performance criteria
279
1
Culture as education and science content in mass media
280
4
Expectations of the educational role of broadcast media
281
1
Quantative assessment
281
1
Qualitative assessment
282
1
Reaching the audience
283
1
Assessing artistic cultural provision
284
2
`High' versus `low' culture
284
2
Ways around the impasse
286
1
Dimensions and indicators of cultural quality
286
3
Space for `high' culture
286
1
The standard of originality
287
1
Criteria of social morality or political value
287
1
Production values and professional quality
288
1
Folk art and crafts
288
1
Commercial criteria of success
289
1
Multiple paths to assessment
289
1
Cultural Identity and Autonomy: Whose Media Culture?
290
11
Political tests of media cultural performance
290
2
Uncertainty about identity
290
1
Claims made on the media
291
1
Transnationalization of media
292
4
Cultural imbalance and invasion
292
1
Varieties of transnationalization
293
1
Cultural profit and loss
294
1
Autonomy versus diversity
295
1
The message as effect?
295
1
Research and its outcomes
296
1
Global images
296
1
Cultural identity in media content
297
2
National identity
297
1
Locality and identification
298
1
Minority identity
298
1
Measurement possibilities
299
2
Part IX IN CONCLUSION
Changing Media, Changing Mores: Implications for Assessment
301
16
Striking a balance
301
1
Looking ahead to the information age
302
1
Changes in the communications media
303
3
The public interest in an information age
306
5
A revised agenda of public interest concerns
307
1
Issues of freedom and democracy
307
2
Equality issues
309
1
Issues of order and culture
310
1
Adapting media performance assessment
311
3
Focusing on audience reception and response
313
1
Case studies
313
1
Cross-national, cross-system comparisons
313
1
Performance assessment options
314
1
The professional/organizational model of assessment
314
1
The public debate model
315
1
The concession/monitoring model
315
1
Information for guidance and accountability
315
2
References
317
29
Index
346