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Tables of Contents for Molecular Cell Biology
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
I Chemical and Molecular Foundations
1 Life Begins with Cells
1
28
1.1 The Diversity and Commonality of Cells
1
7
All Cells Are Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic
2
2
Unicellular Organisms Help and Hurt Us
4
2
Even Single Cells Can Have Sex
6
1
Viruses Are the Ultimate Parasites
6
1
We Develop from a Single Cell
7
1
Stem Cells, Cloning, and Related Techniques Offer Exciting Possibilities but Raise Some Concerns
8
1
1.2 The Molecules of a Cell
8
5
Small Molecules Carry Energy, Transmit Signals, and Are Linked into Macromolecules
8
1
Proteins Give Cells Structure and Perform Most Cellular Tasks
9
1
Nucleic Acids Carry Coded Information for Making Proteins at the Right Time and Place
10
1
The Genome Is Packaged into Chromosomes and Replicated During Cell Division
11
1
Mutations May Be Good, Bad, or Indifferent
12
1
1.3 The Work of Cells
13
6
Cells Build and Degrade Numerous Molecules and Structures
14
1
Animal Cells Produce Their Own External Environment and Glues
15
1
Cells Change Shape and Move
15
1
Cells Sense and Send Information
16
1
Cells Regulate Their Gene Expression to Meet Changing Needs
16
1
Cells Grow and Divide
17
1
Cells Die from Aggravated Assault or an Internal Program
18
1
1.4 Investigating Cells and Their Parts
19
7
Cell Biology Reveals the Size, Shape, and Location and Cell Components
20
1
Biochemistry Reveals the Molecular Structure and Chemistry of Purified Cell Constituents
21
1
Genetics Reveals the Consequences of Damaged Genes
21
1
Genomics Reveals Differences in the Structure and Expression of Entire Genomes
22
1
Developmental Biology Reveals Changes in the Properties of Cells as They Specialize
23
1
Choosing the Right Experimental Organism for the Job
24
2
1.5 A Genome Perspective on Evolution
26
3
Metabolic Proteins, the Genetic Code, and Organelle Structures Are Nearly Universal
26
1
Many Genes Controlling Development Are Remarkably Similar in Humans and Other Animals
26
1
Darwin's Ideas About the Evolution of Whole Animals Are Relevant to Genes
27
1
Human Medicine Is Informed by Research on Other Organisms
28
1
2 Chemical Foundations
29
30
2.1 Atomic Bonds and Molecular Interactions
30
7
Each Atom Has a Defined Number and Geometry of Covalent Bonds
30
2
Electrons Are Shared Unequally in Polar Covalent Bonds
32
1
Covalent Bonds Are Much Stronger and More Stable Than Noncovalent Interactions
32
1
Ionic Interactions Are Attractions Between Oppositely Charged Ions
33
1
Hydrogen Bonds Determine Water Solubility of Uncharged Molecules
33
1
Van der Waals Interactions Are Caused by Transient Dipoles
34
1
The Hydrophobic Effect Causes Nonpolar Molecules to Adhere to One Another
35
1
Molecular Complementarity Permits Tight, Highly Specific Binding of Biomolecules
36
1
2.2 Chemical Building Blocks of Cells
37
9
Amino Acids Differing Only in Their Side
Chains Compose Proteins
38
2
Five Different Nucleotides Are Used to Build Nucleic Acids
40
1
Monosaccharides Joined by Glycosidic Bonds Form Linear and Branched Polysaccharides
41
2
Fatty Acids Are Precursors for Many Cellular Lipids
43
1
Phospholipids Associate Noncovalently to Form the Basic Bilayer Structure of Biomembranes
44
2
2.3 Chemical Equilibrium
46
4
Equilibrium Constant Reflect the Extent of a Chemical Reaction
46
1
Chemical Reactions in Cells Are at Steady State
46
1
Dissociation Constants for Binding Reactions Reflect the Affinity of Interacting Molecules
47
1
Biological Fluids Have Characteristic pH Values
47
1
Hydrogen Ions Are Released by Acids and Taken Up by Bases
48
1
Buffers Maintain the pH of Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids
48
2
2.4 Biochemical Energetics
Several Forms of Energy Are Important in Biological Systems
50
1
Cells Can Transform One Type of Energy into Another
50
1
The Change in Free Energy Determines the Direction of a Chemical Reaction
51
1
The ΔG°' of a Reaction Can Be Calculated from Its Keq
52
1
An Unfavorable Chemical Reaction Can Proceed If It Is Coupled with an Energetically Favorable Reaction
52
1
Hydrolysis of ATP Releases Substantial Free Energy and Drives Many Cellular Processes
52
1
ATP Is Generated During Photosynthesis and Respiration
53
1
NAD+ and FAD Couple Many Biological Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
54
5
3 Protein Structure and Function
59
42
3.1 Hierarchical Structure of Proteins
60
8
The Primary Structure of a Protein Is Its Linear Arrangement of Amino Acids
60
1
Secondary Structures Are the Core Elements of Protein Architecture
61
1
Overall Folding of a Polypeptide Chain Yields Its Tertiary Structure
62
1
Motifs Are Combinations of Secondary Structures
63
1
Structural and Functional Domains Are Modules of Tertiary Structure
64
2
Proteins Associate into Multimeric Structures and Macromolecular Assemblies
66
1
Members of Protein Families Have a Common Evolutionary Ancestor
67
1
3.2 Folding, Modification, and Degradation of Proteins
68
5
The Information for Protein Folding Is Encoded in the Sequence
68
1
Folding of Proteins in Vivo Is Promoted by Chaperones
69
1
Many Proteins Undergo Chemical Modification of Amino Acid Residues
70
1
Peptide Segments of Some Proteins Are Removed After Synthesis
70
1
Ubiquitin Marks Cytosolic Proteins for Degradation in Proteasomes
71
1
Digestive Proteases Degrade Dietary Proteins
72
1
Alternatively Folded Proteins Are Implicated in Slowly Developing Diseases
72
1
3.3 Enzymes and the Chemical Work of Cells
73
6
Specificity and Affinity of Protein-Ligand Binding Depend on Molecular Complementarity
73
1
Enzymes Are Highly Efficient and Specific Catalysts
74
1
An Enzyme's Active Site Binds Substrates and Carries Out Catalysis
75
1
Vmax and Km Characterize an Enzymatic Reaction
76
1
Enzymes in a Common Pathway Are Often Physically Associated with One Another
76
3
3.4 Molecular Motors and the Mechanical Work of Cells
79
3
Molecular Motors Convert Energy into Motion
79
2
All Myosins Have Head, Neck, and Tail Domains with Distinct Functions
81
1
Conformational Changes in the Myosin Head Couple ATP Hydrolysis to Movement
81
1
3.5 Common Mechanisms for Regulating Protein Function
82
4
Cooperative Binding Increases a Protein's Response to Small Changes in Ligand Concentration
83
1
Ligand Binding Can Induce Allosteric Release of Catalytic Subunits or Transition to a State with Different Activity
83
1
Calcium and GTP Are Widely Used to Modulate Protein Activity
84
1
Cyclic Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Regulate Many Cellular Functions
85
1
Proteolytic Cleavage Irreversibly Activates or Inactivates Some Proteins
85
1
Higher-Order Regulation Includes Control of Protein Location and Concentration
86
1
3.6 Purifying, Detecting, and Characterizing Proteins
86
15
Centrifugation Can Separate Particles and Molecules That Differ in Mass or Density
86
1
Electrophoresis Separates Molecules on the Basis of Their Charge: Mass Ratio
87
3
Liquid Chromatography Resolves Proteins by Mass, Charge, or Binding Affinity
90
2
Highly Specific Enzyme and Antibody Assays Can Detect Individual Proteins
92
1
Radioisotopes Are Indispensable Tools for Detecting Biological Molecules
93
1
Mass Spectrometry Measures the Mass of Proteins and Peptides
94
1
Protein Primary Structure Can Be Determined by Chemical Methods and from Gene Sequences
95
1
Peptides with a Defined Sequence Can Be Synthesized Chemically
95
1
Protein Conformation Is Determined by Sophisticated Physical Methods
95
6
4 Basic Molecular Genetic Mechanisms
101
46
4.1 Structure of Nucleic Acids
102
6
A Nucleic Acid Strand Is a Linear Polymer with End-to-End Directionality
103
1
Native DNA Is a Double Helix of Complementary Antiparallel Strands
103
2
DNA Can Undergo Reversible Strand Separation
105
1
Many DNA Molecules Are Circular
106
1
Different Types of RNA Exhibit Various Confirmations Related to Their Functions
107
1
4.2 Transcription of Protein-Coding Genes and Formation of Functional mRNA
108
7
A Template DNA Strand Is Transcribed into a Complementary RNA Chain by RNA Polymerase
109
2
Organization of Genes Differs in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA
111
1
Eukaryotic Precursor mRNAs Are Processed to Form Functional mRNAs
112
1
Alternative RNA Splicing Increases the Number of Proteins Expressed from a Single Eukaryotic Gene
113
2
4.3 Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
115
4
Initiation of lac Operon Transcription Can Be Repressed and Activated
115
1
Small Molecules Regulate Expression of Many Bacterial Genes via DNA-Binding Repressors
116
1
Transcription by o54-RNA Polymerase Is Controlled by Activators That Bind Far from the Promoter
116
1
Many Bacterial Responses Are Controlled by Two-Component Regulatory Systems
117
2
4.4 The Three Roles of RNA in Translation
119
6
Messenger RNA Carries Information from DNA in a Three-Letter Genetic Code
119
2
The Folded Structure of tRNA Promotes Its Decoding Functions
121
1
Nonstandard Base Pairing Often Occurs Between Codons and Anticodons
122
1
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Activate Amino Acids by Covalently Linking Them to tRNAs
123
1
Ribosomes Are Protein-Synthesizing Machines
123
2
4.5 Stepwise Synthesis of Proteins on Ribosomes
125
6
Methionyl-tRNAiMet Recognizes the AUG Start Codon
125
1
Translation Initiation Usually Occurs Near the First AUG Closest to the 5' End of an mRNA
126
1
During Chain Elongation Each Incoming Aminoacyl-tRNA Moves Through Three Ribosomal Sites
127
2
Translation Is Terminated by Release Factors When a Stop Codon Is Reached
129
1
Polysomes and Rapid Ribosome Recycling Increase the Efficiency of Translation
130
1
4.6 DNA Replication
131
6
DNA Polymerases Require a Primer to Initiate Replication
132
1
Duplex DNA Is Unwound, and Daughter Strands Are Formed at DNA Replication Fork
133
1
Helicase, Primase, DNA Polymerases, and Other Proteins Participate in DNA Replication
133
2
DNA Replication Generally Occurs Bidirectionally from Each Origin
135
2
4.7 Viruses: Parasites of the Cellular Genetic System
137
10
Most Viral Host Ranges Are Narrow
137
1
Viral Capsids Are Regular Arrays of One or a Few Types of Protein
137
1
Viruses Can Be Cloned and Counted in Plaque Assays
138
1
Lytic Viral Growth Cycles Lead to Death of Host Cells
139
2
Viral DNA Is Integrated into Host-Cell Genome in Some Nonlytic Viral Growth Cycles
141
6
II Cell Organization and Biochemistry
5 Biomembranes and Cell Architecture
147
98
5.1 Biomembranes: Lipid Composition and Structural Organization
Three Classes of Lipids Are Found in Biomembranes
150
2
Most Lipids and Many Proteins Are Laterally Mobile in Biomembranes
152
1
Lipid Composition Influences the Physical Properties of Membranes
153
2
Membrane Lipids Are Usually Distributed Unequally in the Exoplasmic and Cytosolic Leaflets
155
1
Cholesterol and Sphingolipids Cluster with Specific Proteins in Membrane Microdomains
156
1
5.2 Biomembranes: Protein Components and Basic Functions
157
8
Proteins Interact with Membranes in Three Different Ways
157
1
Membrane-Embedded a Helices Are the Primary Secondary Structures in Most Transmembrane Proteins
158
2
Multiple ß Strands in Porins Form Membrane-Spanning "Barrels"
160
1
Covalently Attached Hydrocarbon Chains Anchor Some Proteins to Membranes
160
1
All Transmembrane Proteins and Glycolipids Are Asymmetrically Oriented in the Bilayer
161
1
Interactions with the Cytoskeleton Impede the Mobility of Integral Membrane Proteins
162
1
Lipid-Binding Motifs Help Target Peripheral Proteins to the Membrane
162
2
The Plasma Membrane Has Many Common Functions in All Cells
164
1
5.3 Organelles of Eukaryotic Cell
165
8
Endosomes Take Up Soluble Macromolecules from the Cell Exterior
165
1
Lysosomes Are Acidic Organelles That Contain a Battery of Degradative Enzymes
165
3
Peroxisomes Degrade Fatty Acids and Toxic Compounds
168
1
The Endoplasmic Reticulum Is a Network of Interconnected Internal Membranes
168
1
The Golgi Complex Processes and Sorts Secreted and Membrane Proteins
169
1
Plant Vacuoles Store Small Molecules and Enable a Cell to Elongate Rapidly
170
1
The Nucleus Contains the DNA Genome, RNA Synthetic Apparatus, and a Fibrous Matrix
171
1
Mitochondria Are the Principal Sites of ATP Production in Aerobic Cells
171
1
Chloroplasts Contain Internal Compartments in Which Photosynthesis Takes Place
172
1
5.4 The Cytoskeleton Components a Structural Functions
173
5
Three Types of Filaments Compose the Cytoskeleton
174
2
Cytoskeletal Filaments Are Organized into Bundles and Networks
176
1
Microfilaments and Membrane-Binding Proteins Form a Skeleton Underlying the Plasma Membrane
176
1
Intermediate Filaments Support the Nuclear Membrane and Help Connect Cells into Tissues
177
1
Microtubules Radiate from Centrosomes and Organize Certain Subcellular Structures
177
1
5.5 Purification of Cells and Their Parts
178
6
Flow Cytometry Separates Different Cell Types
178
2
Disruption of Cells Releases Their Organelles and Other Contents
180
1
Centrifugation Can Separate Many Types of Organelles
181
1
Organelle-Specific Antibodies Are Useful in Preparing Highly Purified Organelles
181
1
Proteins Can Be Removed from Membranes by Detergents or High-Salt Solutions
182
2
5.6 Visualizing Cell Architecture
184
13
A Microscope Detects, Magnifies, and Resolves Small Objects
184
1
Samples for Microscopy Must Be Fixed, Sectioned, and Stained to Image Subcellular Details
185
1
Phase-Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy Visualize Unstained Living Cells
186
1
Fluorescence Microscopy Can Localize and Quantify Specific Molecules in Fixed and Live Cells
187
2
Confocal Scanning and Deconvolution Microscopy Provide Sharp Images of Three-Dimensional Objects
189
1
Resolution of Transmission Electron Microscopy Is Vastly Greater Than That of Light Microscopy
190
2
Electron Microscopy of Metal-Coated Specimens Can Reveal Surface Features of Cells and Their Components
192
1
Three-Dimensional Models Can Be Constructed from Microscopy Images
192
5
6 Integrating Cells into Tissues
197
48
6.1 Cell-Cell and Cell-Matrix Adhesion: An Overview
199
2
Cell-Adhesion Molecules Bind to One Another and to Intracellular Proteins
199
2
The extracellular Matrix Participates in Adhesion and Other Functions
201
1
Diversity of Animal Tissues Depends on Evolution of Adhesion Molecules with Various Properties
201
1
6.2 Sheetlike Epithelial Tissues: Junctions and Adhesion Molecules
201
8
Specialized Junctions Help Define the Structure and Function of Epithelial Cells
202
2
Ca2+-Dependent Homophilic Cell-Cell Adhesion in Adherens Junctions and Desmosomen Is Mediated by Cadherins
204
2
Tight Junctions Seal Off Body Cavities and Restrict Diffusion of Membrane Components
206
2
Differences in Permeability of Tight Junctions Can Control Passage of Small Molecules Across Epithelia
208
1
Many Cell-Matrix and Some Cell-Cell Interactions Are Mediated by Integrins
208
1
6.3 The Extracellular Matrix of Epithelial Sheets
209
7
The Basal Lamina Provides a Foundation for Epithelial Sheets
210
1
Sheet-Forming Type IV Collagen Is a Major Structural Component in Basal Lamina
211
1
Laminin, a Multiadhesive Matrix Protein, Helps Cross-link Components of the Basal Lamina
212
1
Secreted and Cell-Surface Proteoglycans Are Expressed by Many Cell Types
213
2
Modifications in Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) Chains Can Determine Proteoglycan Functions
215
1
6.4 The Extracellular Matrix of Nonepithelial Tissues
216
7
Fibrillar Collagens Are the Major Fibrous Proteins in the Extracellular Matrix of Connective Tissues
217
1
Formation of Collagen Fibrils Begins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Is Completed Outside the Cell
217
1
Type I and II Collagens Form Diverse Structures and Associate with Different Nonfibrillar Collagens
218
1
Hyaluronan Resists Compression and Facilitates Cell Migration
219
1
Association of Hyaluronan and Proteoglycans Forms Large, Complex Aggregates
219
1
Fibronectins Connect Many Cells to Fibrous Collagens and Other Matrix Components
220
3
6.5 Adhesive Interactions and Nonepithelial Cells
223
8
Integrin-Containing Adhesive Structures Physically and Functionally Connect the ECM and Cytoskeleton in Nonepithelial Cells
223
2
Diversity of Ligand-Integrin Interactions Contributes to Numerous Biological Processes
225
1
Cell-Matrix Adhesion Is Modulated by Changes in the Binding Activity and Numbers of Integrins
225
1
Molecular Connections between the ECM and the Cytoskeleton Are Defective in Muscular Dystrophy
226
1
Cat+-Independent Cell-Cell Adhesion in Neuronal and Other Tissues Is Mediated by CAMs in the Immunoglobulin Superfamily
227
1
Movement of Leukocytes into Tissues Depends on a Precise Sequence of Combinatorially Diverse Sets of Adhesive Interactions
227
2
Gap Junctions Composed of Connexins Allow Small Molecules to Pass Between Adjacent Cells
229
2
6.6 Plant Tissues
231
4
The Plant Cell Wall Is a Laminate of Cellulose Fibrils in a Matrix of Glycoproteins
232
1
Loosening of the Cell Wall Permits Elongation of Plant Cells
232
1
Plasmodesmata Directly Connect the Cytosols of Adjacent Cells in Higher Plants
233
1
Only a Few Adhesive Molecules Have Been Identified in Plants
234
1
6.7 Growth and Use of Cultured Cells
235
11
Culture of Animal Cells Requires Nutrient-Rich Media and Special Solid Surfaces
235
1
Primary Cell Cultures and Cell Strains Have a Finite Life Span
236
1
Transformed Cells Can Grow Indefinitely in Culture
236
1
Hybrid Cells Called Hybridomas Produce Abundant Monoclonal Antibodies
237
2
HAT Medium Is Commonly Used to Isolate Hybrid Cells
239
6
7 Transport of Ions and Small Molecules Across Cell Membranes
245
56
7.1 Overview of Membrane Transport
246
6
Few Molecules Cross Membranes by Passive Diffusion
246
1
Membrane Proteins Mediate Transport of Most Molecules and All Ions Across Biomembranes
246
2
Several Features Distinguish Uniport Transport from Passive Diffusion
248
1
GLUT1 Uniporter Transports Glucose into Most Mammalian Cells
249
1
The Human Genome Encodes a Family of Sugar Transporting GLUT Proteins
250
1
Transport Proteins Can Be Enriched Within Artificial Membranes and Cells
250
2
7.2 ATP-Powered Rumps and the Intracellular Ionic Environnent
252
8
Different Classes of Pumps Exhibit Characteristic Structural and Functional Properties
252
1
ATP-Driven Ion Pumps Generate and Maintain Ionic Gradients Across Cellular Membranes
253
1
Muscle Cat+ ATPase Pumps Cat+ Ions from the Cytosol into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
254
2
Calmodulin-Mediated Activation of Plasma-Membrane Cat+ ATPase Leads to Rapid Cat+ Export
256
1
Na+/K+ ATPase Maintains the Intracellular Na+ and K+ Concentrations in Animal Cells
256
1
V -Class H+ ATPases Pump Protons Across Lysosomal and Vacuolar Membranes
257
1
Bacterial Permeases Are ABC Proteins That Import a Variety of Nutrients from the Environment
258
1
About 50 ABC Small-Molecule Pumps Are Known in Mammals
258
1
ABC Proteins That Transport Lipid-Soluble Substrates May Operate by a Flippase Mechanism
259
1
7.3 Nongated Ion Channels and the Resting Membrane Potential
260
8
Selective Movement of Ions Creates a Transmembrane Electric Potential Difference
261
1
The Membrane Potential in Animal Cells Depends Largely on Resting K+ Channels
262
1
Ion Channels Contain a Selectivity Filter Formed from Conserved Transmembrane a Helices and P Segments
263
2
Patch Clamps Permit Measurement of Ion Movements Through Single Channels
265
1
Novel Ion Channels Can Be Characterized by a Combination of Oocyte Expression and Patch Clamping
266
1
Na+ Entry into Mammalian Cells Has a Negative Change in Free Energy (LIG)
267
1
7.4 Cotransport by Symporters and Antiporters
268
3
Na+-Linked Symporters Import Amino Acids and Glucose into Animal Cells Against High Concentration Gradients
268
1
Na+-Linked Antiporter Exports Cat2+ from Cardiac Muscle Cells
269
1
Several Cotransporters Regulate Cytosolic pH
269
1
Numerous Transport Proteins Enable Plant Vacuoles to Accumulate Metabolites and Ions
270
1
7.5 Movement of Water
271
3
Osmotic Pressure Causes Water to Move Across Membranes
271
1
Different Cells Have Various Mechanisms for Controlling Cell Volume
272
1
Aquaporins Increase the Water Permeability of Cell Membranes
273
1
7.6 Transepithelial Transport
274
2
Multiple Transport Proteins Are Needed to Move Glucose and Amino Acids Across Epithelia
274
1
Simple Rehydration Therapy Depends on the Osmotic Gradient Created by Absorption of Glucose and Na+
275
1
Parietal Cells Acidify the Stomach Contents While Maintaining a Neutral Cytosolic pH
275
1
7.7 Voltage Gated Ion Channels and the Propagation of Action Potentials in Nerve Cells
276
11
Specialized Regions of Neurons Carry Out Different Functions
276
2
Magnitude of the Action Potential Is Close to ENa
278
1
Sequential Opening and Closing of Voltage-Gated Na+ and K+ Channels Generate Action Potentials
279
2
Action Potentials Are Propagated Unidirectionally Without Diminution
281
1
Nerve Cells Can Conduct Many Action Potentials in the Absence of ATP
282
1
All Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Have Similar Structures
282
1
Voltage-Sensing S4 α Helices Move in Response to Membrane Depolarization
283
1
Movement of the Channel-Inactivating Segment into the Open Pore Blocks Ion Flow
284
1
Myelination Increases the Velocity of Impulse Conduction
284
2
Action Potentials "Jump" from Node to Node in Myelinated Axons
286
1
7.8 Neurotransmitters and Receptor and Transport Proteins in Signal Transmission at Synapses
287
17
Neurotransmitters Are Transported into Synaptic Vesicles by H+-Linked Antiport Proteins
287
1
Influx of Ca2+ Through Voltage-Gated Cat+ Channels Triggers Release of Neurotransmitters
288
2
Signaling at Synapses Usually Is Terminated by Degradation or Reuptake of Neurotransmitters
290
1
Opening of Acetylcholine-Gated Cation Channels Leads to Muscle Contraction
290
1
All Five Subunits in the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Contribute to the Ion Channel
291
2
Nerve Cells Make an All-or-None Decision to Generate and Action Potential
293
1
The Nervous System Uses Signaling Circuits Composed of Multiple Neurons
294
7
8 Cellular Energetics
301
50
8.1 Oxidation of Glucose and Fatty Acids to CO2
304
11
Cytolysis Enzymes Convert Glucose into Pyruvate in Glycolysis
304
1
Anaerobic Metabolism of Each Glucose Molecule Yields Only Two ATP Molecules
305
2
Mitochondria Possess Two Structurally and Functionally Distinct Membranes
307
2
Acetyl CoA Derived from Pyruvate Is Oxidized to Yield CO2 and Reduced Coenzymes in Mitochondria
309
2
Transporters in the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Allow the Uptake of Electrons from Cytosolic NADH
311
1
Mitochondrial Oxidation of Fatty Acids Is Coupled to ATP Formation
312
1
Peroxisomal Oxidation of Fatty Acids Generates No ATP
313
1
The Rate of Glucose Oxidation Is Adjusted to Meet the Cell's Need for ATP
313
2
8.2 Electron Transport and Generation of the Proton-Motive Force
315
10
The Proton-Motive Force in Mitochondria Is Due Largely to a Voltage Gradient Across the Inner Membrane
317
1
Electron Transport in Mitochondria Is Coupled to Proton Translocation
317
1
Electrons Flow from FADH2 and NADH to O2 through a Series of Four Multiprotein Complexes
318
3
Reduction Potentials of Electron Carriers Favor Electron Flow from NADH to O2
321
1
CoQ and Three Electron-Transport Complexes Pump Protons Out of the Mitochondrial Matrix
322
1
The Q Cycle Increases the Number of Protons Translocated as Electrons Flow Through the CoQH2-Cytochrome c Reductase Complex
323
2
8.3 Harnessing the Proton-Motive Force for Energy-Requiring Processes
325
6
Bacterial Plasma-Membrane Proteins Catalyze Electron Transport and Coupled ATP Synthesis
326
1
ATP Synthase Comprises Two Multiprotein Complexes Termed F0 and F1
326
1
Rotation of the F1 γ Subunit, Driven by Proton Movement Through F0, Powers ATP Synthesis
327
2
ATP-ADP Exchange Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Is Powered by the Proton-Motive Force
329
1
Rate of Mitochondrial Oxidation Normally Depends on ADP Levels
330
1
Brown-Fat Mitochondria Contain an Uncoupler of Oxidative Phosphorylation
330
1
8.4 Photosynthetic Stages and Light-Absorbing Pigments
331
5
Thylakoid Membranes Are the Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants
331
1
Three of the Four Stages in Photosynthesis Occur Only During Illumination
332
1
Each Photon of Light Has a Defined Amount of Energy
333
1
Photosystems Comprise a Reaction Center and Associated Light-Harvesting Complexes
333
1
Photoelectron Transport from Energized Reaction Center Chlorophyll a Produces a Charge Separation
334
1
Light-Harvesting Complexes Increase the Efficiency of Photosynthesis
335
1
8.5 Molecular Analysis of Photosystems
336
6
The Single Photosystem of Purple Bacteria Generates a Proton-Motive Force but No 02
336
2
Chloroplasts Contain Two Functionally and Spatially Distinct Photosystems
338
1
Linear Electron Flow Through Both Plant Photosystems, PSII and PSI, Generates a Proton-Motive Force, O2, and NADPH
339
1
An Oxygen-Evolving Complex Is Located on the Luminal Surface of the PSII Reaction Center
339
1
Cyclic Electron Flow Through PSI Generates a Proton-Motive Force but No NADPH or O2
340
1
Relative Activity of Photosystems I and II Is Regulated
340
2
8.6 CO2 Metabolism During Photosynthesis
342
10
CO2 Fixation Occurs in the Chloroplast Stroma
342
2
Synthesis of Sucrose Incorporating Fixed CO2 Is Completed in the Cytosol
344
1
Light and Rubisco Activase Stimulate CO2 Fixation
344
1
Photorespiration, Which Competes with Photosynthesis, Is Reduced in Plants That Fix CO2 by the C4 Pathway
345
2
Sucrose Is Transported from Leaves Through the Phloem to All Plant Tissues
347
4
III Genetics and Molecular Biology
9 Molecular Genetic Techniques and Genomics
351
54
9.1 Genetic Analysis of Mutations to Identify and Study Genes
352
9
Recessive and Dominant Mutant Alleles Generally Have Opposite Effects on Gene Function
353
1
Segregation of Mutations in Breeding Experiments Reveals Their Dominance or Recessivity
354
2
Conditional Mutations Can Be Used to Study Essential Genes in Yeast
356
1
Recessive Lethal Mutations in Diploids Can Be Identified by Inbreeding and Maintained in Heterozygotes
357
1
Complementation Tests Determine Whether Different Recessive Mutations Are in the Same Gene
357
1
Double Mutants Are Useful in Assessing the Order in Which Proteins Function
358
1
Genetic Suppression and Synthetic Lethality Can Reveal Interacting or Redundant Proteins
359
2
9.2 DNA Cloning by Recombinant DNA Methods
361
10
Restriction Enzymes and DNA Ligases Allow Insertion of DNA Fragments into Cloning Vectors
361
2
E. coli Plasmid Vectors Are Suitable for Cloning Isolated DNA Fragments
363
1
Bacteriophage λ Vectors Permit Efficient Construction of Large DNA Libraries
364
1
cDNAs Prepared by Reverse Transcription of Cellular mRNAs Can Be Cloned to Generate cDNA Libraries
365
2
DNA Libraries Can Be Screened by Hybridization to an Oligonucleotide Probe
367
1
Oligonucleotide Probes Are Designed Based on Partial Protein Sequences
368
1
Yeast Genomic Libraries Can Be Constructed with Shuttle Vectors and Screened by Functional Complementation
369
2
9.3 Characterizing and Using Cloned DNA Fragments
371
9
Gel Electrophoresis Allows Separation of Vector DNA from Cloned Fragments
371
1
Cloned DNA Molecules Are Sequenced Rapidly by the Dideoxy Chain-Termination Method
372
3
The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies a Specific DNA Sequence from a Complex Mixture
375
1
Blotting Techniques Permit Detection of Specific DNA Fragments and mRNAs with DNA Probes
376
1
E. coli Expression Systems Can Produce Large Quantities of Proteins from Cloned Genes
377
1
Plasmid Expression Vectors Can Be Designed for Use in Animal Cells
378
2
9.4 Genomics: Genome-wide Analysis of Gene Structure and Expression
380
7
Stored Sequences Suggest Functions of Newly Identified Genes and Proteins
380
2
Comparison of Related Sequences from Different Species Can Give Clues to Evolutionary Relationships Among Proteins
382
1
Genes Can Be Identified Within Genomic DNA Sequences
383
1
The Size of an Organism's Genome Is Not Directly Related to Its Biological Complexity
384
1
DNA Microarrays Can Be Used to Evaluate the Expression of Many Genes at One Time
385
1
Cluster Analysis of Multiple Expression Experiments Identifies Co-regulated Genes
386
1
9.5 Inactivating the Function of Specific Genes in Eukaryotes
387
7
Normal Yeast Genes Can Be Replaced with Mutant Alleles by Homologous Recombination
387
1
Transcription of Genes Ligated to a Regulated Promoter Can Be Controlled Experimentally
388
1
Specific Genes Can Be Permanently Inactivated in the Germ Line of Mice
389
1
Somatic Cell Recombination Can Inactivate Genes in Specific Tissues
390
1
Dominant-Negative Alleles Can Functionally Inhibit Some Genes
391
2
Double-Stranded RNA Molecules Can Interfere with Gene Function by Targeting mRNA for Destruction
393
1
9.6 Identifying and Locating Human Disease Genes
394
12
Many Inherited Diseases Show One of Three Major Patterns of Inheritance
395
1
Recombinational Analysis Can Position Genes on a Chromosome
396
1
DNA Polymorphisms Are Used in Linkage-Mapping Human Mutations
396
1
Linkage Studies Can Map Disease Genes with a Resolution of About 1 Centimorgan
397
1
Further Analysis Is Needed to Locate a Diseases Result Cloned DNA
398
1
Many Inherited Diseases Result from Multiple Genetic Defects
398
7
10 Molecular Structure of Genes and Chromosomes
405
42
10.1 Molecular Definition of a Gene
406
2
Most Eukaryotic Genes Produce Monocistronic mRNAs and Contain Lengthy Introns
406
1
Simple and Complex Transcription Units Are Found in Eukaryotic Genomes
407
1
10.2 Chromosomal Organization of Genes and Noncoding DNA
408
6
Genomes of Many Organisms Contain Much Nonfunctional DNA
408
1
Protein-Coding Genes May Be Solitary or Belong to a Gene Family
409
2
Tandemly Repeated Genes Encode rRNAs, tRNAs, and Histones
411
1
Most Simple-Sequence DNAs Are Concentrated in Specific Chromosomal Locations
412
1
DNA Fingerprinting Depends on Differences in length of Simple-Sequence DNAs
413
1
10.3 Mobile DNA
414
10
Movement of Mobile Elements Involves a DNA or an RNA Intermediate
414
1
Mobile Elements That Move As DNA Are Present in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
415
2
Some Retrotransposons Contain LTRs and Behave like Intracellular Retroviruses
417
3
Retrotransposons That Lack LTRs Move by a Distinct Mechanism
420
2
Mobile DNA Elements Probably Had a Significant Influence on Evolution
422
2
10.4 Structural Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosomes
424
6
Eukaryotic Nuclear DNA Associates with Histone Proteins to Form Chromatin
424
1
Chromatin Exists in Extended and Condensed Forms
424
2
Modification of Histone Tails Controls Chromatin Condensation
426
1
Nonhistone Proteins Provide a Structural Scaffold for Long Chromatin Loops
427
2
Chromatin Contains Small Amounts of Other Proteins in Addition to Histones and Scaffold Proteins
429
1
Eukaryotic Chromosomes Contain One Linear DNA Molecule
429
1
10.5 Morphology and Functional Elements of Eukaryotic Chromosomes
430
8
Chromosome Number, Size, and Shape at Metaphase Are Species-Specific
430
1
During Metaphase, Chromosomes Can Be Distinguished by Banding Patterns and Chromosome Painting
431
2
Interphase Polytene Chromosomes Arise by DNA Amplification
433
1
Heterochromatin Consists of Chromosome Regions That Do Not Uncoil
433
1
Three Functional Elements Are Required for Replication and Stable Inheritance of Chromosomes
433
2
Centromere Sequences Vary Greatly in Length
435
1
Addition of Telomeric Sequences by Telomerase Prevents Shortening of Chromosomes
435
2
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes Can Be Used to Clone Megabase DNA Fragments
437
1
10.6 Organelle DNAs
438
10
Mitochondria Contain Multiple mtDNA Molecules
438
1
mtDNA Is Inherited Cytoplasmically and Encodes rRNAs, tRNAs, and Some Mitochondrial Proteins
438
1
The Size and Coding Capacity of mtDNA Vary Considerably in Different Organisms
439
1
Products of Mitochondrial Genes Are Not Exported
440
1
Mitochondrial Genetic Codes Differ from the Standard Nuclear Code
441
1
Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Cause Several Genetic Diseases in Humans
441
1
Chloroplasts Contain Large Circular DNAs Encoding More Than a Hundred Proteins
442
5
11 Transcriptional Control of Gene Expression
447
46
11.1 Overview of Eukaryotic Gene Control and RNA Polymerases
448
6
Most Genes in Higher Eukaryotes Are Regulated by Controlling Their Transcription
448
1
Regulatory Elements in Eukaryotic DNA Often Are Many Kilobases from Start Sites
449
1
Three Eukaryotic Polymerases Catalyze Formation of Different RNAs
450
2
The Largest Subunit in RNA Polymerase II Has an Essential Carboxyl-Terminal Repeat
452
1
RNA Polymerase II Initiates Transcription at DNA Sequences Corresponding to the 5' Cap of mRNAs
453
1
11.2 Regulatory Sequences in Protein-Coding Genes
454
4
The TATA Box, Initiators, and CpG Islands Function as Promoters in Eukaryotic DNA
454
1
Promoter-Proximal Elements Help Regulate Eukaryotic Genes
455
1
Distant Enhancers Often Stimulate Transcription by RNA Polymerase II
456
1
Most Eukaryotic Genes Are Regulated by Multiple Transcription-Control Elements
457
1
11.3 Activators and Repressors of Transcription
458
11
Footprinting and Gel-Shift Assays Detect Protein-DNA Interactions
458
3
Activators Are Modular Proteins Composed of Distinct Functional Domains
461
1
Repressors Are the Functional Converse of Activators
462
1
DNA-Binding Domains Can Be Classified into Numerous Structural Types
463
2
Transcription-Factor Interactions Increase Gene-Control Options
465
2
Structurally Diverse Activation and Repression Domains Regulate Transcription
467
1
Multiprotein Complexes Form on Enhancers
468
1
11.4 Transcription Initiation by RNA Polymerase II
469
2
General Transcription Factors Position RNA Polymerases II at Start Sites and Assist in Initiation
469
1
Sequential Assembly of Proteins Forms the Pol II Transcription Preinitiation Complex in Vitro
469
1
In Vivo Transcription Initiation by Pol II Requires Additional Proteins
470
1
11.5 Molecular Mechanisms of Transcription Activation and Repression
471
11
Formation of Heterochromatin Silences Gene Expression at Telomeres, near Centromeres, and in Other Regions
471
3
Repressors Can Direct Histone Deacetylation at Specific Genes
474
1
Activators Can Direct Histone Acetylation at Specific Genes
475
1
Modifications of Specific Residues in Histone Tails Control Chromatin Condensation
476
1
Chromatin-Remodeling Factors Help Activate or Repress Some Genes
476
1
The Mediator Complex Forms a Molecular Bridge Between Activation Domains and Pol II
477
1
Transcription of Many Genes Requires Ordered Binding of Activators and Action of Co-Activators
478
2
The Yeast Two-Hybrid System Exploits Activator Flexibility to Detect cDNAs That Encode Interacting Proteins
480
2
11.6 Regulation of Transcription-Factor Activity
All Nuclear Receptors Share a Common Domain Activity Structure
482
1
Nuclear-Receptor Response Elements Contain Inverted or Direct Repeats
483
1
Hormone Binding to a Nuclear Receptor Regulates Its Activity as a Transcription Factor
483
2
11.7 Regulation Elongation and Termination of Transcription
485
1
Transcription of the HIV Genome Is Regulated by an Antitermination Mechanism
485
1
Promoter-Proximal Pausing of RNA Polymerase II Occurs in Some Rapidly Induced Genes
486
1
11.8 Other Eukaryotic Transcription Systems
486
7
Transcription Initiation by Pol I and Pol III Is Analogous to That by Pol II
486
2
Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNAs Are Transcribed by Organelle-Specific RNA Polymerases
488
5
12 Post-transcriptional Gene Control and Nuclear Transport
493
40
12.1 Processing of Eukaryotic Pre-mRNA
493
11
The 5' Cap Is Added to Nascent RNAs Shortly After Initiation by RNA Polymerase II
493
1
Pre-mRNAs Are Associated with hnRNP Proteins Containing Conserved RNA-Binding Domains
494
2
3' Cleavage and Polyadenylation of Pre-mRNAs Are Tightly Coupled
496
1
Splicing Occurs at Short, Conserved Sequences in Pre-mRNAs via Two Transesterification Reactions
497
2
snRNAs Base-Pair with Pre-mRNA and with One Another During Splicing
499
1
Spliceosomes, Assembled from snRNPs and a Pre-RNA, Carry Out Splicing
499
2
Chain Elongation by RNA Polymerase II Is Coupled to the Presence of RNA-Processing Factors
501
1
SR Proteins Contribute to Exon Definition in Long Pre-mRNAs
501
1
Self-Splicing Group II Introns Provide Clues to the Evolution of SnRNAs
502
1
Most Transcription and RNA Processing Occur in a Limited Number of Domains in Mammalian Cell Nuclei
503
1
Nuclear Exonucleases Degrade RNA That Is Processed out of Pre-mRNAs
504
1
12.2 Regulation of Pre-mRNA Processing
504
5
Alternative Splicing Is the Primary Mechanism for Regulating mRNA Processing
505
1
A Cascade of Regulated RNA Splicing Controls Drosophila Sexual Differentiation
505
2
Splicing Repressors and Activators Control Splicing at Alternative Sites
507
1
RNA Editing Alters the Sequences of Pre-mRNAs
508
1
12.3 Macromolecular Transport Across the Nuclear Envelope
509
9
Large and Small Molecules Enter and Leave the Nucleus via Nuclear Pore Complexes
509
1
Importins Transport Proteins Containing Nuclear-Localization Signals into the Nucleus
510
2
Exportins Transport Proteins Containing Nuclear-Export Signals out of the Nucleus
512
1
Control of Some Genes Is Achieved by Regulating Transport of Transcription Factors
513
1
Most mRNAs Are Exported from the Nucleus with the Aid of an mRNA-Exporter
514
1
Pre-mRNAs in Spliceosomes Are Not Exported from the Nucleus
515
1
HIV Rev Protein Regulates the Transport of Unspliced Viral mRNAs
515
3
12.4 Cytoplasmic Mechanisms of Post-transcriptional Control
518
7
Micro RNAs Repress Translation of Specific mRNAs
518
1
RNA Interference Induces Degradation of mRNAs with Sequences Complementary to Double-Stranded RNAs
518
1
Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Promotes Translation of Some mRNAs
519
2
mRNAs Are Degraded by Several Mechanisms in the Cytoplasm
521
1
An Iron-Sensitive RNA-Binding Protein Regulates mRNA Translation and Degradation
522
1
Nonsense-Mediated Decay and Other mRNA Surveillance Mechanisms Prevent Translation of Improperly Processed mRNAs
523
1
Localization of mRNAs Permits Production of Proteins at Specific Regions Within the Cytoplasm
523
2
12.5 Processing of rRNA and tRNA
525
9
Pre-rRNA Genes Are Similar in All Eukaryotes and Function as Nucleolar Organizers
525
1
Small Nucleolar RNAs Assist in Processing Pre-rRNAs and Assembling Ribosome Subunits
526
1
Self-Splicing Group I Introns Were the First Examples of Catalytic RNA
527
1
Pre-tRNAs Undergo Cleavage, Base Modification, and Sometimes Protein-Catalyzed Splicing
528
5
IV Cell Signalling
13 Signaling at the Cell Surface
533
38
13.1 Signaling Molecules and Cell-Surface Receptors
534
7
Signaling Molecules in Animals Operate over Various Distances
535
1
Receptors Activate a Limited Number of Signaling Pathways
535
1
Receptor Proteins Exhibit Ligand-Binding and Effector Specificity
536
1
Maximal Cellular Response to a Signaling Molecule May Not Require Activation of All Receptors
537
1
Sensitivity of a Cell to External Signals Is Determined by the Number of Surface Receptors
538
1
Binding Assays Are Used to Detect Receptors and Determine Their Kd Values
538
1
Receptors Can Be Purified by Affinity Techniques or Expressed from Cloned Genes
539
2
13.2 Intracellular Signal Transduction
541
4
Second Messengers Carry Signals from Many Receptors
541
1
Many Conserved Intracellular Proteins Function in Signal Transduction
542
1
Some Receptors and Signal-Transduction Proteins Are Localized
543
1
Appropriate Cellular Responses Depend on Interaction and Regulation of Signaling Pathways
544
1
13.3 G Protein-Coupled Receptors That Activate or Inhibit Adenylyl Cyclase
545
10
The Ga Subunit of G Proteins Cycles Between Active and Inactive Forms
546
1
Epinephrine Binds to Several Different G Protein-Coupled Receptors
547
1
Critical Functional Domains in Receptors and Coupled G Proteins Have Been Identified
548
1
Adenylyl Cyclase Is Stimulated and Inhibited by Different Receptor-Ligand Complexes
549
1
cAMP-Activated Protein Kinase A Mediates Various Responses in Different Cells
550
1
Glycogen Metabolism Is Regulated by Hormone Induced Activation of Protein Kinase A
550
2
Signal Amplification Commonly Occurs Downstream from Cell-Surface Receptors
552
1
Several Mechanisms Regulate Signaling from G Protein-Coupled Receptors
553
1
Anchoring Proteins Localize Effects of cAMP to Specific Subcellular Regions
554
1
13.4 G Protein-Coupled Receptors That Regulate Ion Channels
555
6
Cardiac Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors Activate a G Protein That Opens K+ Channels
556
1
Gt-Coupled Receptors Are Activated by Light
556
2
Activation of Rhodopsin Induces Closing of cGMP-Gated Cation Channels
558
2
Rod Cells Adapt to Varying Levels of Ambient Light
560
1
13.5 G protein-Coupled Receptors That Activate Phospholipase C
561
4
Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate (IP3) Triggers Release of Cat+ from the Endoplasmic Reticulum
562
1
Diacylglycerol (DAG) Activates Protein Kinase C, Which Regulates Many Other Proteins
563
1
Ca2t+/Calmodulin Complex Mediates Many Cellular Responses
563
1
Signal-Induced Relaxation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Is Mediated by cGMP-Activated Protein Kinase G
564
1
13.6 Activation of Gene Transcription by G Protein-Coupled Receptors
565
1
Membrane-Localized Tubby Transcription Factor Is Released by Activation of Phospholipase C
565
2
CREB Links cAMP Signals to Transcription
567
1
GPCR-Bound Arrestin Activates Several Kinase Cascades That Control Gene Expression
567
4
14 Signaling Pathways That Control Gene Activity
571
40
14.1 TGFB Receptors and the Direct Activation of Smads
574
4
TGFß Is Formed by Cleavage of a Secreted Inactive Precursor
574
1
TGFß Signaling Receptors Have Serine/Threonine Kinase Activity
575
1
Activated Type I TGFß Receptors Phosphorylase Smad Transcription Factors
575
2
Oncoproteins and I-Smads Regulate Smad Signaling via Negative Feedback Loops
577
1
Loss of TGFß Signaling Contributes to Abnormal Cell Proliferation and Malignancy
577
1
14.2 Cytokine Receptors and the JAK-STAT Pathway
578
9
Cytokine Receptors and Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Share Many Signaling Features
578
2
Cytokines Influence Development of Many Cell Types
580
1
All Cytokines and Their Receptors Have Similar Structures and Activate Similar Signaling Pathways
581
1
Somatic Cell Genetics Revealed JAKs and STATS as Essential Signal-Transduction Proteins
582
1
Receptor-Associated JAK Kinases Activate STAT Transcription Factors Bound to a Cytokine Receptor
583
1
SH2 and PTB Domains Bind to Specific Sequences Surrounding Phosphotyrosine Residues
584
1
Signaling from Cytokine Receptors Is Modulated by Negative Signals
585
1
Mutant Erythropoietin Receptor That Cannot Be Down-Regulated Leads to Increased Hematocrit
586
1
14.3 Receptor Tyrosine Kinases and Activation of Ras
587
5
Ligand Binding Leads to Transphosphorylation of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
587
1
Ras, a GTPase Switch Protein, Cycles Between Active and Inactive States
588
1
An Adapter Protein and Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor Link Most Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases to Ras
589
1
Genetic Studies in Drosophile Identify Key Signal-Transducing Proteins Downstream from Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
590
1
Binding of Sos Protein to Inactive Ras Causes a Conformational Change That Activates Ras
591
1
14.4 MAP Kinase Pathways
592
6
Signals Pass from Activated Ras to a Cascade of Protein Kinases
593
2
MAP Kinase Regulates the Activity of Many Transcription Factors Controlling Early-Response Genes
595
1
G Protein-Coupled Receptors Transmit Signals to MAP Kinase in Yeast Mating Pathways
596
1
Scaffold Proteins Isolate Multiple MAP Kinase Pathways in Eukaryotic Cells
597
1
14.5 Phosphoinositides as Signal Transducers
598
3
Phospholipase C Is Activated by Some RTKs and Cytokine Receptors
598
1
Recruitment of PI-3 Kinase to Hormone-Stimulated Receptors Leads to Activation of Protein Kinase B
598
2
The Insulin Receptor Acts Through the PI-3 Kinase Pathway to Lower Blood Glucose
600
1
Activated Protein Kinase B Promotes Cell Survival by Several Pathways
600
1
PTEN Phosphatase Terminates Signaling via the PI-3 Kinase Pathway
600
1
The Receptor for a Particular Growth Factor Often Is linked to Multiple Signaling Pathways
601
1
14.6 Pathways That Involve Signal-Induced Protein Cleavage
601
4
Signal-Induced Degradation of a Cytosolic Inhibitor Protein Activates the NF-KB Transcription Factor
602
1
Regulated Intramembrane Proteolysis Catalyzed by Presenilin 1 Activates Notch Receptor
603
2
14.7 Down-Modulation of Receptor Signaling
605
7
Endocytosis of Cell-Surface Receptors Desensitizes Cells to Many Hormones
605
1
Secreted Decoy Receptors Bind Hormone and Prevent Receptor Activation
606
5
15 Integration of Signals and Gene Controls
611
46
15.1 Experimental Approaches for Building a Comprehensive View of Signal-Induced Responses
612
5
Genomic Analyses Show Evolutionary Conservation and Proliferation of Genes Encoding Signals and Regulators
613
1
In Situ Hybridization Can Detect Transcription Changes in Intact Tissues and Permeabilized Embryos
614
1
DNA Microarray Analysis Can Assess Expression of Multiple Genes Simultaneously
614
1
Protein Microarrays Are Promising Tools for Monitoring Cell Responses That Include Changes in Protein-Binding Patterns
615
1
Systematic Gene Inactivation by RNA Interference
616
1
15.2 Responses of Cells to Environmental Influences
617
4
Integration of Multiple Second Messengers Regulates Glycogenolysis
617
1
Insulin and Glucagon Work Together to Maintain a Stable Blood Glucose Level
618
1
Oxygen Deprivation Induces a Program of Cellular Responses
619
2
15.3 Control of Cell Fates by Graded Amounts of Regulators
621
11
Inductive Signaling Operates by Gradient and Relay Mechanisms
623
1
Morphogens Control Cell Fates in Early Drosophila Development
624
3
Reciprocal Signaling Between the Oocyte and Follicle Cells Establishes Initial Dorsovental Patterning in Drosophila
627
1
Nuclear Dorsal and Decapentaplegic, a Secreted Signal, Specify Ventral and Dorsal Cell Fates
628
1
Transcriptional Control by Maternally Derived Bicoid Protein Specifies the Embryo's Anterior
629
1
Maternally Derived Translation Inhibitors Reinforce Bicoid-Mediated Anterioposterior Patterning
630
2
Toll-like Signaling Activates an Ancient Defense System in Plants and Animals
632
1
15.4 Boundary Creation by Different Combinations of Transcription Factors
632
7
Drosophila Gap Genes Are Transcribed in Broad Bands of Cells and Regulate One Another
633
1
Combinations of Gap Proteins Direct Transcription of Pair-Rule Genes in Stripes
634
2
Maternal and Zygotic Segmentation Proteins Regulate Expression of Homeotic (Hox) Genes
636
1
Flower Development Also Requires Spatially Regulated Production of Transcription Factors
637
2
15.5 Boundary Creation by Extracellular Signals
639
5
Two Secreted Signals, Wingless and Hedgehog, Create Additional Boundaries Within Segments of Cellular Fly Embryos
639
1
Signaling, Which Requires Two Transmembrane Proteins, Relieves Repression of Target Genes
640
2
Wnt Signals Trigger Disassembly of an Intracellular Complex, Releasing a Transcription Factor
642
1
Gradients of Hedgehog and Transforming Growth Factor ß Specify Cell Types in the Neural Tube
643
1
Cell-Surface Proteoglycans Influence Signaling by Some Pathways
644
1
15.6 Reciprocal Induction and Lateral Inhibition
644
4
Cell-Surface Ephrin Ligands and Receptors Mediate Reciprocal Induction During Angiogenesis
644
2
The Conserved Notch Signaling Pathway Mediates Lateral Inhibition
646
2
15.7 Integrating and Controlling Signals
648
11
Competence Depends on Properties of Cells That Enable Them to Respond to Inductive Signals
648
1
Some Signals Can Induce Diverse Cellular Responses
649
1
Limb Development Depends on Integration of Multiple Extracellular Signal Gradients
650
1
Signals Are Buffered by Intracellular and Extracellular Antagonists
651
6
V Membrane Trafficking
16 Moving Proteins into Membranes and Organelles
657
44
16.1 Translocation of Secretory Proteins Across the ER Membrane
659
7
A Hydrophobic N-Terminal Signal Sequence Targets Nascent Secretory Proteins to the ER
660
1
Cotranslational Translocation Is Initiated by Two GTP-Hydrolyzing Proteins
661
1
Passage of Growing Polypeptides Through the Translocon Is Driven by Energy Released During Translation
662
3
ATP Hydrolysis Powers Post-translational Translocation of Some Secretory Proteins in Yeast
665
1
16.2 Insertion of Proteins into the ER Membrane
666
7
Several topological Classes of Integral Membrane Proteins Are Synthesized on the ER
666
1
Internal Stop-Transfer and Signal-Anchor Sequences Determine Topology of Single-Pass Proteins
667
2
Multipass Proteins Have Multiple Internal Topogenic Sequences
669
1
A Phospholipid Anchor Tethers Some Cell-Surface Proteins to the Membrane
670
1
The Topology of a Membrane Protein Often Can Be Deduced from Its Sequence
671
2
16.3 Protein Modifications, Folding, and Quality Control in the ER
673
7
A Preformed N-Linked Oligosaccharide Is Added to Many Proteins in the Rough ER
673
1
Oligosaccharide Side Chains May Promote Folding and Stability of Glycoproteins
674
1
Disulfide Bonds Are Formed and Rearranged by Proteins in the ER Lumen
675
2
Chaperones and Other ER Proteins Facilitate Folding and Assembly of Proteins
677
1
Improperly Folded Proteins in the ER Induce Expression of Protein-Folding Catalysts
678
1
Unassembled or Misfolded Proteins in the ER Are Often Transported to the Cytosol for Degradation
679
1
16.4 Export of Bacterial Proteins
680
3
Cytosolic SecA ATPase Pushes Bacterial Polypeptides Through Translocons into the Periplasmic Space
680
1
Several Mechanisms Translocate Bacterial Proteins into the Extracellular Space
681
1
Pathogenic Bacteria Can Inject Proteins into Animal Cells via Type III Secretion Apparatus
681
2
16.5 Sorting of Proteins to Mitochrondria and Chloroplasts
683
10
Amphipathic N-Terminal Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Mitochondrial Matrix
684
1
Mitochondrial Protein Import Requires Outer Membrane Receptors and Translocons in Both Membranes
684
2
Studies with Chimeric Proteins Demonstrate Important Features of Mitochondrial Import
686
1
Three Energy Inputs Are Needed to Import Proteins into Mitochondria
686
1
Multiple Signals and Pathways Target Proteins to Submitochondrial Compartments
687
4
Targeting of Chloroplast Stromal Proteins Is Similar to Import of Mitochondrial Matrix Proteins
691
1
Proteins Are Targeted to Thylakoids by Mechanisms Related to Translocation Across the Bacterial Inner Membrane
691
2
16.6 Sorting of Peroxisomal Proteins
693
10
Cytosolic Receptor Targets Proteins with an SKL Sequence at the C-Terminus into the Peroxisomal Matrix
693
Peroxisomal Membrane and Matrix Proteins Are Incorporated by Different Pathways
691
10
17 Vesicular Traffic, Secretion, and Endocytosis
701
42
17.1 Techniques for Studying the Secretory Pathway
703
4
Transport of a Protein Through the Secretory Pathway Can Be Assayed in Living Cells
703
2
Yeast Mutants Define Major Stages and Many Components in Vesicular Transport
705
1
Cell-free Transport Assays Allow Dissection of Individual Steps in Vesicular Transport
706
1
17.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Vesicular Traffic
707
8
Assembly of a Protein Coat Drives Vesicle Formation and Selection of Cargo Molecules
708
1
A Conserved Set of GTPase Switch Proteins Controls Assembly of Different Vesicle Coats
709
1
Targeting Sequences on Cargo Proteins Make Specific Molecular Contacts with Coat Proteins
710
1
Rab GTPases Control Docking of Vesicles on Target Membranes
711
1
Paired Sets of SNARE Proteins Mediate Fusion of Vesicles with Target Membranes
712
1
Dissociation of SNARE Complexes After Membrane Fusion Is Driven by ATP Hydrolysis
713
1
Conformational Changes in Viral Envelope Proteins Trigger Membrane Fusion
713
2
17.3 Early Stages of the Secretory Pathway
715
4
COPII Vesicles Mediate Transport from the ER to the Golgi
716
1
COPI Vesicles Mediate Retrograde Transport within the Golgi and from the Golgi to the ER
716
2
Anterograde Transport Through the Golgi Occurs by Cisternal Progression
718
1
17.4 Later Stages of the Secretory Pathway
719
8
Vesicles Coated with Clathrin and/or Adapter Proteins Mediate Several Transport Steps
720
1
Dynamin Is Required for Pinching Off of Clathrin Vesicles
721
1
Mannose 6-Phosphate Residues Target Soluble Proteins to Lysosomes
721
2
Study of Lysosomal Storage Diseases Revealed Key Components of the Lysosomal Sorting Pathway
723
1
Protein Aggregation in the Trans-Golgi May Function in Sorting Proteins to Regulated Secretory Vesicles
724
1
Some Proteins Undergo Proteolytic Processing After Leaving the Trans-Golgi
724
2
Several Pathways Sort Membrane Proteins to the Apical or Basolateral Region of Polarized Cells
726
1
17.5 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis and the Sorting of Internalized Proteins
727
8
Receptors for Low-Density Lipoprotein and Other Ligands Contain Sorting Signals That Target Them for Endocytosis
729
1
The Acidic pH of Late Endosomes Causes Most Receptor-Ligand Complexes to Dissociate
730
1
The Endocytic Pathway Delivers Iron to Cells Without Dissociation of Receptor-Transferrin Complex Endosomes
731
1
Specialized Vesicles Deliver Cell Components to the Lysosome for Degradation
732
1
Retroviruses Bud from the Plasma Membrane by a Process Similar to Formation of Multivesicular Endosomes
733
2
Transcytosis Moves Some Endocytosed Ligands Across an Epithelial Cell Layer
735
1
17.6 Synaptic Vesicle Function and Formation
735
10
Synaptic Vesicles Loaded with Neurotransmitter Are Localized Near the Plasma Membrane
736
1
A Calcium-Binding Protein Regulates Fusion of Synaptic Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane
736
2
Fly Mutants Lacking Dynamin Cannot Recycle Synaptic Vesicles
738
5
18 Metabolism and Movement of Lipids
743
36
18.1 Phospholipids and Sphingolìpids: Synthesis and Intracellular Movement
745
5
Fatty Acids Are Precursors for Phospholipids and Other Membrane Components
745
1
Unesterified Fatty Acids Move Within Cells Bound to Small Cytosolic Proteins
746
1
Incorporaton of Fatty Acids into Membrane Lipids Takes Place on Organelle Membranes
747
1
Flippases Move Phospholipids from One Membrane Leaflet to the Opposite Leaflet
748
2
18.2 Cholesterol: A Multifunctional Membrane Lipid
750
4
Cholesterol Is Synthesized by Enzymes in the Cytosol and ER Membrane
751
1
Many Bioactive Molecules Are Made from Cholesterol and Its Biosynthetic Precursors
752
1
Cholesterol and Phospholipids Are Transported Between Organelles by Golgi-Independent Mechanisms
752
2
18.3 Lipid Movement into and out of Cells
754
9
Cell-Surface Transporters Aid in Moving Fatty Acids Across the Plasma Membrane
755
1
ABC Proteins Mediate Cellular Export of Phospholipids and Cholesterol
755
2
Lipids Can Be Exported or Imported in Large Well-Defined Lipoprotein Complexes
757
1
Lipoproteins Are Made in the ER, Exported by the Secretory Pathway, and Remodeled in the Circulation
758
1
Cells Use Several Protein-Mediated Mechanisms to Import Lipoprotein Lipids
759
1
Analysis of Familial Hypercholesterolemie Revealed the Pathway for Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis of LDL Particles
760
2
Cholesteryl Esters in Lipoproteins Can Be Selectively Taken Up by the Receptor SR-BI
762
1
18.4 Feedback Regulation of Cellular Lipid Metabolism
763
4
ER-to-Golgi Transport and Proteolytic Activation Control the Activity of SREBP Transcription Factors
764
1
Multiple SREBPs Regulate Expression of Numerous Lipid-Metabolizing Proteins
765
1
Members of the Nuclear Receptor Superfamily Contribute to Cellular and Whole-Body Lipid Regulation
766
1
18.5 The Cell Biology of Atherosclerosis, Heart Attacks, and Strokes
767
13
Arterial Inflammation and Cellular Import of Cholesterol Mark the Early Stages of Atherosclerosis
768
1
Atherosclerotic Plaques Can Impede Blood Flow, Leading to Heart Attacks and Strokes
769
1
LDLR-Independent Uptake of LDL (Bad Cholesterol) Leads to Formation of Foam Cells
770
1
Reverse Cholesterol Transport by HDL (Good Cholesterol) Protects Against Atherosclerosis
770
1
Two Treatments for Atherosclerosis Are Based on SREBP-Regulated Cellular Cholesterol Metabolism
771
8
VI Cytoskeleton
19 Microfilaments and Intermediate Filaments
779
38
19.1 Actin Structures
780
4
Actin Is Ancient, Abundant, and Highly Conserved
780
1
G-Actin Monomers Assemble into Long, Helical F-Actin Polymers
781
1
F-Actin Has Structural and Functional Polarity
782
1
CH-Domain and Other Proteins Organize Microfilaments into Bundles and Networks
782
2
19.2 The Dynamics of Actin Assembly
784
7
Actin Polymerization in Vitro Proceeds in Three Steps
784
1
Actin Filaments Grow Faster at ( + ) End Than at (-) End
785
1
Toxins Perturb the Pool of Actin Monomers
786
1
Actin Polymerization Is Regulated by Proteins That Bind G-Actin
786
1
Filament-Binding Severing Proteins Create New Actin Ends
787
1
Actin-Capping Proteins Stabilize F-Actin
788
1
Arp2/3 Assembles Branched Filaments
788
1
Intracellular Movements and Changes in Cell Shape Are Driven by Actin Polymerization
789
2
19.3 Myosins Powered Cell Movements
791
9
Myosins Are a Large Superfamily of Mechanochemical Motor Proteins
791
2
Myosin Heads Walk Along Actin Filaments in Discrete Steps
793
1
Myosin-Bound Vesicles Are Carried Along Actin Filaments
794
2
Actin and Myosin II Form Contractile Bundles in Nonmuscle Cells
796
1
Organized Thick and Thin Filaments in Skeletal Muscle Slide Past One Another During Contraction
797
1
Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Is Regulated by Ca2+ and Actin-Binding Proteins
798
1
Myosin-Dependent Mechanisms Regulate Contraction in Smooth Muscle and Nonmuscle Cells
799
1
19.4 Cell Locomotion
800
5
Cell Movement Coordinates Force Generation with Cell Adhesion
801
2
Ameboid Movement Entails Reversible Gel-Sol Transitions of Actin Networks
803
1
External Signals and Various Signaling Pathways Coordinate Events That Lead to Cell Migration
803
2
19.5 Intermediate Filaments
805
13
Intermediate Filaments Differ in Stability, Size, and Structure from Other Cytoskeletal Fibers
806
1
IF Proteins Are Classified According to Their Distributions in Specific Tissues
806
2
All IF Proteins Have a Conserved Core Domain and Are Organized Similarly into Filaments
808
1
Intermediate Filaments Are Dynamic
809
1
Various Proteins Cross-Link Intermediate Filaments to One Anther and to Other Cell Structures
810
1
IF Networks Form Various Supportive Structures and Are Connected to Cellular Membranes
810
1
Disruption of Keratin Networks Causes Blistering
811
6
20 Microtubules
817
36
20.1 Microtubule Organization and Dynamics
818
11
Heterodimeric Tubulin Subunits Compose the Wall of a Microtubule
819
1
Microtubule Assembly and Disassembly Take Place Preferentially at the (+) End
820
2
Dynamic Instability Is an Intrinsic Property of Microtubules
822
1
Numerous Proteins Regulate Microtubule Dynamics and Cross-Linkage to Other Structures
823
2
Colchicine and Other Drugs Disrupt Microtubule Dynamics
825
1
MITOCs Orient Most Microtubules and Determine Cell Polarity
825
2
The λ-Tubulin Ring Complex Nucleates Polymerization of Tubulin Subunits
827
1
Cytoplasmic Organelles and Vesicles Are Organized by Microtubules
828
1
20.2 Kinesin- and Dynein-Powered Movements
829
9
Axonal Transport Along Microtubules Is in Both Directions
829
2
Kinesin I Powers Anterograde Transport of Vesicles in Axons
831
1
Most Kinesins Are Processive (+) End Directed Motor Proteins
832
1
Cytosolic Dyneins Are (-) End-Directed Motor Proteins That Bind Cargo Through Dynactin
833
1
Multiple Motor Proteins Sometimes Move the Same Cargo
834
1
Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella Contain a Core of Doublet Microtubules Studded with Axonemal Dyneins
835
2
Ciliary and Flagellar Beating Are Produced by Controlled Sliding of Outer Doublet Microtubules
837
1
20.3 Microtubule Dynamics and Motor Proteins in Mitosis
838
16
The Mitotic Apparatus Is a Microtubule Machine for Separating Chromosomes
839
2
The Kinetochore Is a Centromere-Based Protein Complex That Captures and Helps Transport Chromosomes
841
1
Duplicated Centrosomes Align and Begin Separating in Prophase
841
2
Formation of the Metaphase Mitotic Spindle Requires Motor Proteins and Dynamic Microtubules
843
2
Anaphase Chromosomes Separate and the Spindle Elongates
845
2
Microtubules and Microfilaments Work Cooperatively During Cytokinesis
847
1
Plant Cells Reorganize Their Microtubules and Build a New Cell Wall in Mitosis
848
5
VII Cell-Cycle and Cell Growth Control
21 Regulating the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
853
46
21.1 Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Control
854
4
The Cell Cycle Is an Ordered Series of Events Leading to Cell Replication
854
1
Regulated Protein Phosphorylation and Degradation Control Passage Through the Cell Cycle
855
1
Diverse Experimental Systems Have Been Used to Identify and Isolate Cell-Cycle Control Proteins
856
2
21.2 Biochemical Studies with Oocytes, Eggs, and Early Embryos
858
6
Maturation-Promoting Factor (MPF) Stimulates Meiotic Maturation of Oocytes and Mitosis in Somatic Cells
859
1
Mitotic Cyclin Was First Identified in Early Sea Urchin Embryos
860
1
Cyclin B Levels and Kinase Activity of Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF) Change Together in Cycling Xenopus Egg Extracts
861
1
Anaphase-Promoting Complex (APC) Controls Degradation of Mitotic Cyclins and Exit from Mitosis
862
2
21.3 Genetic Studies with S. pombe
864
4
A Highly Conserved MPF-like Complex Controls Entry into Mitosis in S. pombe
865
1
Phosphorylation of the CDK Subunit Regulates the Kinase Activity of MPF
865
1
Conformational Changes Induced by Cyclin Binding and Phosphorylation Increase MPF Activity
866
1
Other Mechanisms Also Control Entry into Mitosis by Regulating MPF Activity
867
1
21.4 Molecular Mechanisms for Regulating Mitotic Events
868
6
Phosphorylation of Nuclear Lamins and Other Proteins Promotes Early Mitotic Events
868
2
Unlinking of Sister Chromatids Initiates Anaphase
870
3
Reassembly of the Nuclear Envelope and Cytokinesis Depend on Unopposed Constitutive Phosphatase Activity
873
1
21.5 Genetic Studies with S. cerevisiae
874
7
A Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (CDK) Is Critical for Phase Entry in S. cerevisiae
874
1
Three G1 Cyclins Associate with S. Cerevisiae to Form S Phase-Promoting Factors
875
3
Degradation of the S-Phase Inhibitor Triggers DNA Replication
878
1
Multiple Cyclins Direct the Kinase Activity of S. cerevisiae During Different Cell-Cycle Phases
878
1
Cdcl4 Phosphatase Promotes Exit from Mitosis
879
1
Replication at Each Origin Is Initiated Only Once During the Cell Cycle
879
2
21.6 Cell-Cycle Control in Mammalian Cells
881
5
Mammalian Restriction Point Is Analogous to START in Yeast Cells
882
1
Multiple CDKs and Cyclins Regulate Passage of Mammalian Cells Through the Cell Cycle
883
1
Regulated Expression of Two Classes of Genes Returns G0 Mammalian Cells to the Cell Cycle
883
1
Passage Through the Restriction Point Depends on Phosphorylation of the Tumor-Suppressor Rb Protein
884
1
Cyclin A Is Required for DNA Synthesis and CDK1 for Entry into Mitosis
885
1
Two Types of Cyclin-CDK Inhibitors Contribute to Cell-Cycle Control in Mammals
886
1
21.7 Checkpoints in Cell-Cycle Regulation
886
4
The Presence of Unreplicated DNA Prevents Entry into Mitosis
888
1
Improper Assembly of the Mitotic Spindle Prevents the Initiation of Anaphase
888
1
Proper Segregation of Daughter Chromosomes Is Monitored by the Mitotic Exit Network
888
1
Cell-Cycle Arrest of Cells with Damaged DNA Depends on Tumor Suppressors
889
1
21.8 Meiosis: A Special Type of Cell Division
890
10
Repression of G1 Cyclins and Meiosis-Specific Ime2 Prevents DNA Replication in Meiosis II
890
1
Crossing Over and Meiosis-Specific Rec8 Are Necessary for Specialized Chromosome Segregation in Meiosis I
891
8
22 Cell Birth, Lineage, and Death
899
36
22.1 The Birth of Cells
900
10
Stem Cells Give Rise to Stem Cells and to Differentiating Cells
900
1
Cultured Embryonic Stem Cells Can Differentiate into Various Cell Types
901
1
Tissues Are Maintained by Associated Populations of Stem Cells
902
4
Cell Fates Are Progressively Restricted During Development
906
1
The Complete Cell Lineage of C. elegans Is Known
907
1
Heterochronic Mutants Provide Clues About Control of Cell Lineage
908
2
22.2 Cell-Type Specification in Yeast
910
3
Transcription Factors Encoded at the MAT Locus Act in Concert with MCM1 to Specify Cell
910
1
MCM1 and a1-MCM1 Complexes Activate Gene Transcription
911
1
a2-MCM1 and a2-a1 Complexes Repress Transcription
912
1
Pheromones Induce Mating of a and a Cells to Generate a Third Cell Type
912
1
22.3 Specification and Differentiation of Muscle
913
6
Embryonic Somites Give Rise to Myoblasts, the Precursors of Skeletal Muscle Cells
914
1
Myogenic Genes Were First Identified in Studies with Cultured Fibroblasts
914
1
Muscle-Regulatory Factors (MRFs) and Myocyte-Enhancing Factors (MEFs) Act in Concert to Confer Myogenic Specificity
915
1
Terminal Differentiation of Myoblasts Is Under Positive and Negative Control
916
1
Cell-Cell Signals Are Crucial for Muscle Cell-Fate Determination and Myoblast Migration
917
1
bHLH Regulatory Proteins Function in Creation of Other Tissues
918
1
22.4 Regulation of Asymmetric Cell Division
919
5
Yeast Mating-Type Switching Depends upon Asymmetric Cell Division
920
1
Critical Asymmetry-Regulating Proteins Are Localized at Opposite Ends of Dividing Neuroblasts in Drosophila
921
2
Orientation of the Mitotic Spindle Is Linked to Cytoplasmic Cell-Asymmetry Factors
923
1
22.5 Cell Death and Its Regulation
924
12
Programmed Cell Death Occurs Through Apoptosis
924
1
Neurotrophins Promote Survival of Neurons
925
2
A Cascade of Caspase Proteins Functions in One Apoptotic Pathway
927
1
Pro-Apoptotic Regulators Permit Caspase Activation in the Absence of Trophic Factors
928
1
Some Trophic Factors Induce Inactivation of a Pro Apoptotic Regulator
929
1
Tumor Necrosis Factor and Related Death Signals Promote Cell Murder by Activating Caspases
930
5
23 Cancer
935
23.1 Tumor Cells and the Onset of Cancer
936
7
Metastic Tumor Cells Are Invasive and Can Spread
936
1
Cancers Usually Originate in Proliferating Cells
937
1
Tumor Growth Requires Formation of New Blood Vessels
938
1
Cultured Cells Can Be Transformed into Tumor Cells
939
1
A Multi-hit Model of Cancer Induction Is Supported by Several Lines of Evidence
940
1
Successive Oncogenic Mutations Can Be Traced in Colon Cancers
941
2
23.2 The Genetic Basis of Cancer
943
8
Gain of-Function Mutations Convert Proto-oncogenes into Oncogenes
944
1
Cancer-Causing Viruses Contain Oncogenes or Activate Cellular Proto-oncogenes
945
1
Loss-of-Function Mutations in Tumor-Suppressor Genes Are Oncogenic
946
1
Inherited Mutations in Tumor-Suppressor Genes Increase Cancer Risk
946
2
Aberrations in Signaling Pathways That Control Development Are Associated with Many Cancers
948
2
DNA Microarray Analysis of Expression Patterns Can Reveal Subtle Differences Between Tumor Cells
950
1
23.3 Oncogenic Mutations in Growth-Promoting Proteins
951
5
Ocogenic Receptors Can Promote Proliferation in the Absence of External Growth Factors
951
2
Viral Activators of Growth-Factor Receptors Act as Oncoproteins
953
1
Many Oncogenes Encode Constitutively Active Signal Transduction Proteins
953
2
Inappropriate Production of Nuclear Transcription Factors Can Induce Transformation
955
1
23.4 Mutations Causing Loss of Growth-Inhibiting and Cell-Cycle Controls
956
5
Mutations That Promote Unregulated Passage from G1 to S Phase Are Oncogenic
957
1
Loss-of-Function Mutations Affecting Chromatin-Remodeling Proteins Contribute to Tumors
958
1
Loss of p53 Abolishes the DNA-Damage Checkpoint
958
2
Apoptotic Genes Can Function as Proto-Oncogenes or Tumor-Suppressor Genes
960
1
Failure of Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Also Lead to Aneuploidy in Tumor Cells
961
1
23.5 The Role of Carcinogens and DNA Repair in Cancer
961
DNA Polymerases Introduce Copying Errors and Also Correct Them
962
1
Chemical Damage to DNA Can Lead to Mutations
963
1
Some Carcinogens Have Been Linked to Specific Cancers
963
1
Loss of High-Fidelity DNA Excision-Repair Systems Can Lead to Cancer
964
1
Base Excision Is Used to Repair Damaged Bases and Single-Base Mispairs
965
1
Loss of Mismatch Excision Repair Leads to Colon and Other Cancers
965
1
Nucleotide Excision Repair Was Elucidated Through Study of Xeroderma Pigmentosum, a Hereditary Predisposition to Skin Cancers
966
1
Two Systems Repair Double-Stranded Breaks in DNA
967
2
Telomerase Expression Contributes to Immortalization of Cancer Cells
969
Glossary
G-1
Index
I-1