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Tables of Contents for Surveying
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
iii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1
14
1-1 Surveying
1
1
1-2 Basic Definitions
2
1
1-3 Units of Measurement
3
3
1-4 Metric Equivalents
6
1
1-5 Centesimal System
7
1
1-6 Tables
8
1
1-7 Field Notes
8
1
1-8 Data Collectors
9
1
1-9 Significant Figures and Rounding Off
10
1
1-10 Errors and Mistakes
11
1
1-11 Accuracy and Precision
12
1
Problems
13
1
Bibliography
14
1
Chapter 2 Measurement of Horizontal Distances
15
46
2-1 Horizontal Distances
15
1
2-2 Pacing
15
1
2-3 Odometer
15
1
2-4 Tacheometry
16
1
2-5 Electronic Surveying
16
1
2-6 Chains
17
1
2-7 Tapes
17
1
2-8 Equipment Used for Taping
18
1
2-9 Measurements with Tape Horizontal
19
6
2-10 Tension
25
1
2-11 Reduction of Slope Measurements by Vertical Angles
26
3
2-12 Reduction of Slope Measurements by Difference in Elevation
29
3
2-13 Systematic Errors in Taping
32
1
2-14 Incorrect Length of Tape
32
1
2-15 Tape Not Horizontal
32
1
2-16 Changes in Temperature
33
1
2-17 Incorrect Tension
34
1
2-18 Sag
34
2
2-19 Incorrect Alignment
36
1
2-20 Tape Not Straight
36
1
2-21 Applying Corrections to Tape Measurements
36
2
2-22 Random Taping Errors
38
1
2-23 Specifications for Linear Measurements
39
1
2-24 Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMS)
39
1
2-25 Measurement Principles of EDM Using Light Waves
40
4
2-26 Measurement Principles of EDM Using Microwaves
44
3
2-27 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Wave Velocity
47
3
2-28 Instrumental Errors in EDM
50
2
2-29 Reduction of Slope Measurements in EDM
52
3
2-30 Layout Measurements Using EDM
55
2
2-31 Accuracy of EDM Measurements
57
1
Problems
57
2
Bibliography
59
2
Chapter 3 Leveling
61
67
3-1 Introduction
61
1
3-2 Curvature and Refraction
62
1
3-3 Trigonometric Leveling
63
3
3-4 Direct Differential Leveling
66
1
3-5 Stadia Leveling
67
1
3-6 Leveling with Aneroid Barometer
67
2
3-7 Types of Spirit Levels
69
1
3-8 Dumpy Level
70
1
3-9 Telescope
71
1
3-10 Level Tube
72
1
3-11 Sighting Through the Telescope
73
2
3-12 Tilting Level
75
3
3-13 Self-Leveling or Automatic Level
78
1
3-14 Geodetic Level
79
1
3-15 Electronic Digital Level
79
2
3-16 Hand Level and Clinometer
81
1
3-17 Leveling Rods
81
1
3-18 Philadelphia Rod
82
4
3-19 Precise Leveling Rods
86
1
3-20 Reading the Rod Directly
86
3
3-21 Verniers
89
1
3-22 Optical Micrometer
90
3
3-23 Setting Up the Level
93
2
3-24 Signals
95
1
3-25 Running a Line of Levels
96
2
3-26 Checking Level Notes
98
1
3-27 Check Levels
98
1
3-28 Sources of Error in Leveling
99
1
3-29 Instrumental Errors
99
1
3-30 Errors Due to Manipulation
100
1
3-31 Errors Due to Settlement
101
1
3-32 Errors in Sighting
101
1
3-33 Mistakes in Reading the Rod, Recording, and Computing
102
1
3-34 Errors Due to Natural Sources
103
1
3-35 Personal Errors
103
1
3-36 Limits of Error
104
1
3-37 Reciprocal Leveling
104
1
3-38 Three-Wire Leveling
105
4
3-39 Collimation Correction
109
5
3-40 Profile Levels
114
1
3-41 Stations
114
1
3-42 Field Routine of Profile Leveling
115
1
3-43 Plotting the Profile
116
4
3-44 Grade Lines
120
1
3-45 Rate of Grade
121
1
Problems
122
3
Bibliography
125
3
Chapter 4 The Measurement of Angles
128
49
4-1 Horizontal Angle
128
1
4-2 Angles by Measured Distances
129
1
4-3 Laying Off Angles with Tape
130
2
4-4 Angles With Transit-Theodolite
132
2
4-5 Repeating Versus Direction Instruments
134
1
4-6 Parts of the Engineer's Transit
134
1
4-7 Transit Telescope
134
1
4-8 Rotation of Spindles
135
1
4-9 Horizontal Circle and Vernier
136
3
4-10 Vertical Circle and Vernier
139
1
4-11 Optical Reading Theodolite
139
4
4-12 Electronic Theodolites
143
1
4-13 Instrument Stations
144
1
4-14 Setting Up an Instrument
144
1
4-15 Sighting with the Theodolite
145
2
4-16 Measuring a Horizontal Angle
147
2
4-17 Double Centering
149
2
4-18 Angles by Repetition
151
2
4-19 Vertical and Zenith Angles
153
3
4-20 Sources of Error in Theodolite Angles
156
5
4-21 Mistakes in Theodolite Angles
161
1
4-22 Direction Theodolite
161
5
4-23 Angles From Measured Directions
166
1
4-24 Total Station Instruments
167
3
4-25 Accuracy Required in Measuring Angles
170
1
4-26 Accuracy of Angles Used in Trigonometric Computations
171
2
Problems
173
3
Bibliography
176
1
Chapter 5 Random Errors
177
36
5-1 Nature of Random Errors
177
1
5-2 Probability of an Error Occurring
177
2
5-3 Condition of Lease Squares
179
4
5-4 Standard Error
183
1
5-5 Histograms
184
6
5-6 Measures of Precision
190
2
5-7 Propagation of Random Errors
192
7
5-8 Weighted Measurements
199
3
5-9 Simple Adjustment of Measurements
202
1
5-10 Adjustment of Weighted Measurements
203
2
5-11 Adjustment of a Level Circuit
205
2
5-12 Other Adjustments
207
1
Problems
207
4
Bibliography
211
2
Chapter 6 Field Operations with the Transit or Theodolite
213
17
6-1 Introduction
213
1
6-2 Measuring Interior Angles
213
1
6-3 Measuring Angles to the Right
214
2
6-4 Measuring Deflection Angles
216
3
6-5 Laying Off Angles
219
1
6-6 Straight Line Extension by Double Centering
220
1
6-7 Establishing Points on a Straight Line
221
1
6-8 Balancing In
222
1
6-9 Random Lines
223
1
6-10 Intersection of Two Straight Lines
223
1
6-11 Obstacles on a Line
224
2
6-12 Parallel Lines
226
1
6-13 Location of a Point
226
2
Problems
228
2
Chapter 7 Direction of a Line
230
11
7-1 Astronomical Meridian
230
1
7-2 Magnetic Meridian
230
1
7-3 Assumed Meridian
231
1
7-4 Convergence of Meridians
231
1
7-5 Grid Meridian
231
1
7-6 Azimuth of a Line
231
2
7-7 Back Azimuth
233
1
7-8 Bearing of a Line
233
1
7-9 Back Bearing
234
1
7-10 Relation Between Azimuths and Bearings
234
2
7-11 Magnetic Compass
236
1
7-12 Determining Directions with a Magnetic Compass
237
1
7-13 Magnetic Declination
238
1
7-14 Horizontal Angles from Compass Bearings
238
2
Problems
240
1
Chapter 8 Traverse Surveys and Computations
241
76
8-1 Traverse
241
1
8-2 Open Traverse
242
1
8-3 Closed Traverse
242
1
8-4 Interior-Angle Traverse
243
3
8-5 Deflection-Angle Traverse
246
4
8-6 Angle-to-the-Right Traverse
250
1
8-7 Traverse-by-Azimuth Method
251
2
8-8 Azimuth Traverse
253
2
8-9 Referencing a Traverse Station
255
1
8-10 Traverse Computations
256
1
8-11 Latitudes and Departures
257
1
8-12 Closure in Latitudes and Departures
258
2
8-13 Traverse Closure
260
1
8-14 Balancing a Traverse
261
1
8-15 Balancing by the Compass Rule
262
2
8-16 Lease-Squares Adjustment
264
1
8-17 Remarks on Adjustments
265
1
8-18 Rectangular Coordinates
265
2
8-19 Adjustment of Traverse by Coordinate Adjustment
267
3
8-20 Traversing Using Total Station Instruments
270
1
8-21 Use of Rectangular Coordinates
270
10
8-22 Coordinates of Unoccupied Points
280
4
8-23 Coordinate Transformations
284
3
8-24 Location of a Line Based on Computations
287
4
8-25 Radiation Traverse
291
2
8-26 Area from Rectangular Coordinates
293
1
8-27 Areas from Maps
293
1
8-28 Area with One Curved Boundary
294
3
8-29 Problems in Omitted Measurements
297
1
8-30 Parting Off Land
298
4
8-31 Methods of Plotting a Survey
302
1
8-32 Plotting by Distance and Bearings
302
2
8-33 Plotting by Rectangular Coordinates
304
2
8-34 Scales
306
1
8-35 Meridian Arrow
307
1
8-36 Titles
308
1
8-37 Property Survey Plats
309
2
Problems
311
5
Bibliography
316
1
Chapter 9 Horizontal Control Networks
317
32
9-1 Introduction
317
2
9-2 Control Stations
319
1
9-3 Station Marks
320
1
9-4 Baseline Measurement and Corrections
321
2
9-5 Spherical Excess
323
1
9-6 Types of Figures in Triangulation
324
1
9-7 Computation of a Quadrilateral
324
2
9-8 Computation of Plane Coordinates
326
2
9-9 Geodetic Positions
328
2
9-10 Precise Traverse
330
1
9-11 Reduction of Slope Distance by Vertical Angles
331
5
9-12 Reduction of Slope Distance by Station Elevations
336
2
9-13 Intersection
338
2
9-14 Resection
340
5
Problems
345
2
Bibliography
347
2
Chapter 10 The Global Positioning System
349
20
10-1 Introduction
349
3
10-2 The Codes
352
2
10-3 Satellite Positioning
354
4
10-4 Differential GPS
358
3
10-5 Kinematic GPS
361
1
10-6 Accuracy of Differential Techniques
361
1
10-7 Transformation of GPS Results
361
2
10-8 Height Determination Using GPS
363
1
10-9 Surveying with GPS
364
2
Bibliography
366
3
Chapter 11 State Plane Coordinate and Universal Transverse Mercator Systems
369
63
11-1 Introduction
369
2
11-2 Limits of State Plane Coordinate Systems
371
1
11-3 Difference Between SPCS 27 and SPCS 83
372
5
11-4 Geodetic and Grid Azimuths
377
1
11-5 Transverse Mercator Projection
378
1
11-6 Grid Azimuth on Transverse Mercator Projection of SPCS 27
379
3
11-7 Geographic to Plane Coordinates on Transverse Mercator Projection of SPCS 27
382
2
11-8 Tables for Transverse Mercator Projection of SPCS 27
384
4
11-9 Grid Azimuth on Transverse Mercator Projection of SPCS 83
388
1
11-10 Geographic to Plane Coordinates on Transverse Mercator Projection of SPCS 83
388
7
11-11 Lambert Conformal Projection
395
1
11-12 Grid Azimuth on Lambert Conformal Projection of SPCS 27
396
2
11-13 Geographic to Plane Coordinates on Lambert Conformal Projection of SPCS 27
398
1
11-14 Tables for Lambert Projection of SPCS 27
399
4
11-15 Grid Azimuth on Lambert Conformal Projection of SPCS 83
403
1
11-16 Geographic to Plane Coordinates on Lambert Conformal Projection of SPCS 83
403
4
11-17 Conversion from SPCS 27 Coordinates to SPCS 83 Coordinates
407
4
11-18 Application of State Coordinate Systems
411
10
11-19 Land Areas from State Coordinates
421
1
11-20 Project Lengths from State Coordinates
422
1
11-21 Lost and Obliterated Corners
422
1
11-22 Descriptions by Coordinates
423
1
11-23 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System
424
2
11-24 Conversion of Coordinates Using PC-Based Software
426
1
Problems
427
3
Bibliography
430
2
Chapter 12 Practical Astronomy
432
34
12-1 Uses of Astronomy
432
1
12-2 Definitions
433
5
12-3 Azimuth Angle from Spherical Trigonometry
438
1
12-4 Time
439
1
12-5 Standard Time
440
1
12-6 Local Time
441
1
12-7 Time by Radio
441
1
12-8 Observing the Sun with the Theodolite
441
7
12-9 Observing a Star with the Theodolite
448
1
12-10 Latitude
448
1
12-11 Latitude by Sun's Altitude at Noon
448
2
12-12 Latitude by Observation on Circumpolar Star
450
2
12-13 Latitude from Polaris at Any Hour Angle
452
1
12-14 Azimuth from Observation on Polaris at Elongation
452
2
12-15 Azimuth from Observation on Polaris at any Hour Angle
454
2
12-16 Azimuth from Sun's Altitude
456
4
12-17 Azimuth from Hour Angle of the Sun
460
1
12-18 Order of Making Observations
461
2
Problems
463
2
Bibliography
465
1
Chapter 13 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
466
40
13-1 Introduction
466
1
13-2 Notation for Circular Curves
467
2
13-3 Radius and Degree of Curve
469
1
13-4 Equations for Circular Curves
470
1
13-5 Selection of Curve
471
1
13-6 Stations of PI, PC, and PT
471
2
13-7 Central Angle and Chord to First Curve Station
473
1
13-8 Central Angle and Chord from Last Curve Station to PT
474
1
13-9 Central Angle and Chord Between Any Two Curve Points
475
1
13-10 Deflection Angles to Points on Curve
476
3
13-11 Curve Location
479
2
13-12 Moving Up on Curve
481
1
13-13 Location of Curve by Inversing
482
3
13-14 Intersection of Curve and Straight Line
485
2
13-15 Vertical Curves
487
1
13-16 Vertical Curves by Equation of Parabola
488
2
13-17 Vertical Curves by Tangent Offsets from Grade Lines
490
1
13-18 Intermediate Points on Vertical Curves
491
2
13-19 Location of Highest or Lowest Point
493
1
13-20 Passing a Vertical Curve Through a Fixed Point
493
1
13-21 Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve
494
2
13-22 Minimum Length of Vertical Curve
496
3
13-23 Compound Curves
499
1
13-24 Reversed Curves
500
1
13-25 Easement Curves
500
2
Problems
502
3
Bibliography
505
1
Chapter 14 Tacheometry
506
22
14-1 Use of Tacheometry
506
1
14-2 Principle of Stadia Measurements
507
2
14-3 Determination of Stadia Constant
509
1
14-4 Determination of Stadia Interval Factor
509
1
14-5 Inclined Stadia Measurements
509
2
14-6 Reading a Stadia Interval
511
1
14-7 Difference in Elevation Between Two Points
511
2
14-8 Stadia Traverse
513
3
14-9 Details About a Point
516
1
14-10 Stadia Leveling
516
3
14-11 Errors in Stadia Measurements
519
1
14-12 Errors in Stadia Elevations
520
1
14-13 Self-Reducing Stadia Instruments
520
2
14-14 Subtense Bar
522
2
Problems
524
3
Bibliography
527
1
Chapter 15 Topographic Surveys
528
22
15-1 Introduction
528
1
15-2 Scales and Accuracy
529
1
15-3 Methods of Representing Topography
529
2
15-4 Contour Lines
531
2
15-5 Field Methods
533
1
15-6 Cross-Section Method
533
2
15-7 Methods of Interpolating
535
3
15-8 Trace Contour Method
538
2
15-9 Grid Method
540
2
15-10 Controlling-Point Method
542
2
Problems
544
4
Bibliography
548
2
Chapter 16 Photogrammetry
550
40
16-1 Scope
550
1
16-2 Aerial Camera
551
1
16-3 Types of Aerial Photographs
552
1
16-4 Photographic Scale
553
5
16-5 Relief Displacement
558
3
16-6 Photograph Overlap
561
1
16-7 Ground Control for Photogrammetry
562
2
16-8 Stereoscopy and Parallax
564
6
16-9 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
570
6
16-10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Photogrammetric Mapping
576
1
16-11 Digitized Stereoscopic Model
577
1
16-12 Stereo Plotter With Computer System Interface
577
1
16-13 Orthophotos
578
3
16-14 Digital Photogrammetry
581
6
Problems
587
2
Bibliography
589
1
Chapter 17 Earthwork
590
37
17-1 Introduction
590
1
17-2 Cross Sections
591
1
17-3 Preliminary Cross Sections
591
1
17-4 Final Cross Sections
592
3
17-5 Cross Sectioning by Slope Measurement
595
2
17-6 Location of Slope Stakes by Inversing
597
3
17-7 Distance Between Cross Sections
600
1
17-8 Calculation of Areas
600
3
17-9 Volume by Average End Areas
603
1
17-10 Volume by Prismoidal Formula
604
1
17-11 Volume Through Transition
605
1
17-12 Volume by Truncated Prisms
606
1
17-13 Volumes from Topographic Maps
607
4
17-14 Earthwork Data from Photogrammetric Models
611
2
17-15 Earthwork Quantities by Grading Contours
613
4
17-16 Reservoir Volumes from Contour Maps
617
1
17-17 Mass Diagram
618
1
17-18 Shrinkage
618
1
17-19 Computation of Mass Diagram
619
3
17-20 Calculation of Overhaul
622
1
17-21 Economical Handling of Material
623
1
Problems
624
3
Chapter 18 United States Public Land Surveys
627
28
18-1 Historical Background
627
1
18-2 Manual of Surveying Instructions
628
1
18-3 General Procedure
629
1
18-4 Initial Point
629
1
18-5 Principal Meridian
629
2
18-6 Baseline
631
1
18-7 Baseline by Tangent Method
631
1
18-8 Baseline by Secant Method
632
1
18-9 Standard Parallels
633
2
18-10 Guide Meridians
635
1
18-11 Township Exteriors
636
1
18-12 Numbering Townships
637
1
18-13 Convergence of Meridians
638
1
18-14 Subdivision of Townships
639
2
18-15 Meandering
641
1
18-16 Marking Lines Between Corners
642
1
18-17 Objects Noted in the Survey
643
2
18-18 Specimen Field Notes
645
1
18-19 Corner Monuments
646
1
18-20 Witnesses
646
1
18-21 Filing of Field Notes and Plats
647
1
18-22 Subdivision of Sections
648
2
18-23 Legal Descriptions
650
1
18-24 Relocating Lost Corners
651
2
Bibliography
653
2
Chapter 19 Municipal and Subdivision Surveys
655
17
19-1 Control Monuments and Maps
655
1
19-2 Steps in a City Survey
656
1
19-3 Triangulation for City Surveys
656
2
19-4 Traverse for Control of City Surveys
658
1
19-5 Leveling for City Surveys
659
2
19-6 Base Maps
661
1
19-7 Topographic Map of City
662
2
19-8 City Property Survey
664
1
19-9 Underground Map
664
1
19-10 Digital Database
665
1
19-11 Town, City, and Village Plats
666
1
19-12 Survey for Plat
667
1
19-13 Lot Survey
668
1
19-14 Metes and Bounds
669
1
Bibliography
670
2
Chapter 20 Geographic Information Systems
672
16
20-1 Introduction
672
1
20-2 Spatial Data
673
1
20-3 Computer-Readable Data
673
3
20-4 Topology in Spatial Data
676
1
20-5 Raster Data Model
677
1
20-6 Vector Data Model
678
1
20-7 Raster to Vector Conversion
679
1
20-8 Databases and Database Management Systems
680
3
20-9 Applications of GISs
683
2
20-10 Conclusion
685
1
Problems
686
1
Bibliography
686
2
Appendix A Adjustment of Elementary Surveying Measurements by the Method of Least Squares
688
31
A-1 Introduction
688
6
A-2 Least-Squares Adjustment by Matrix Methods
694
1
A-3(a) Adjustment of a Level Net by Observation Equations
695
5
A-3(b) Adjustment of a Level Net Using Matrix Notation
700
3
A-4 Adjustment of Horizontal Control by Variation of Coordinates
703
4
A-5 Adjustment of a Traverse Net by Observation Equations
707
5
A-6 Adjustment of Intersection Observations
712
2
A-7 Adjustment of Conditioned Resection
714
3
A-8 Remarks on Adjustment of Observations
717
1
Bibliography
717
2
Appendix B The Adjustment of Instruments
719
7
B-1 Introduction
719
1
B-2 Cross Hairs of Dumpy Level
720
1
B-3 Bubble Tube of Dumpy Level
720
1
B-4 Line of Sight of Dumpy Level
720
1
B-5 Cross Hair of Tilting Dumpy Level
721
1
B-6 Bull's-Eye Bubble of Tilting Dumpy Level
721
1
B-7 Bubble Tube of Sensitive Level of Tilting Level
721
1
B-8 Plate Bubbles of Transit
722
1
B-9 Cross Hairs of Transit
722
1
B-10 Standards
723
1
B-11 Telescope Bubble
724
1
B-12 Vertical-Circle Vernier
724
1
B-13 Centering the Eyepiece
724
1
B-14 Protection and Cleaning of Instruments
725
1
Appendix C Tables
726
5
Index
731