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Tables of Contents for On the Self-Regulation of Behavior
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xvii
Acknowledgments
xix
Introduction and Plan
1
9
What Makes Behavior Happen?
1
3
Some Limitations and Some Grandiosity
2
1
Observations and Origins
3
1
The Book's Plan
4
6
Goal-Directed Action
4
1
Emotion
5
1
Confidence and Doubt, Persisting and Giving Up
6
1
Problems in Behavior
7
1
Newer Themes: Dynamic Systems and Catastrophes
7
1
Control versus Emergence of Behavior
8
1
Goal Engagement and Life
9
1
Principles of Feedback Control
10
19
Cybernetics, Feedback, and Control
10
5
Negative Feedback
10
3
An Example: The Ubiquitous Thermostat
13
2
Additional Issues in Feedback Control
15
2
Sloppy versus Tight Control
15
1
Lag Time
15
2
Intermittent Feedback
17
1
Distinctions and Further Constructs
17
5
Positive Feedback Loops
18
1
Open Loop Systems
19
1
Feedforward
20
2
Interrelations among Feedback Processes
22
6
Interdependency
23
1
Reference Value and Input Function: How Do They Differ?
24
2
Hierarchies
26
2
Concluding Comment
28
1
Discrepancy-Reducing Feedback Processes in Behavior
29
19
Feedback Control in Human Behavior
29
11
Early Applications of Feedback Principles
30
1
Our Starting Points
30
1
Self-Directed Attention and Comparison with Standards
31
3
Self-Directed Attention and Conformity to Standards
34
3
Brain Functioning, Self-Awareness, and Self-Regulation
37
1
How Does Attention Shift to the Self in Ordinary Life?
38
2
Broadening the Application of Feedback Principles
40
7
Sources and Nature of Feedback of the Effects of One's Behavior
40
2
Use of Feedback for Self-Verification
42
2
Social Comparison and Feedback Control
44
3
Summary
47
1
Discrepancy-Enlarging Loops, and Three Further Issues
48
15
Discrepancy-Enlarging Feedback Loops in Behavior
48
9
Downward Social Comparison
49
1
Negative Reference Groups
49
1
Feared Self and Unwanted Self
50
1
Positive Feedback Process Constrained by Negative Feedback Process
51
3
The Ought Self
54
1
Reactance
55
2
Further Issues
57
6
Feedback Loops in Mutual Interdependence
57
2
The Search for Discrepancies
59
1
The Issue of Will
60
3
Goals and Behavior
63
20
Goals
63
4
An Overview of Broad Goal Constructs
63
2
Task-Specific Goals
65
2
Hierarchical Conceptions of Goals
67
9
Basic Premise: Goals Can Be Differentiated by Levels of Abstraction
67
1
A Control Hierarchy
68
5
Hierarchical Functioning Is Simultaneous
73
1
Action Identification
74
2
Comparisons Outside Personality --- Social Psychology
76
2
Hierarchical Plans
76
1
Hierarchical Models of Motor Control
77
1
Comparisons from Personality --- Social Psychology
78
4
Relations to Goal Models Outlined Earlier
78
1
Hierarchicality behind Task Efforts
79
2
Hierarchicality in Other Models
81
1
Summary
82
1
Goals, Hierarchicality, and Behavior: Further Issues
83
20
Challenges to Hierarchicality
83
4
Hierarchies, Heterarchies, and Coalitions
83
2
Are the Qualities of the Proposed Hierarchy the Wrong Sorts?
85
1
Responsibility for Details
86
1
Further Issues Regarding Hierarchical Functioning
87
6
Which Level Is Functionally Superordinate Can Vary
87
2
Multiple Paths to High-Level Goals, Multiple Meanings in Concrete Action
89
1
Goal Importance
90
1
Approach Goals and Avoidance Goals within a Hierarchy
91
1
Approach and Avoidance Goals and Well-Being
92
1
Multiple Simultaneous Goals
93
2
Conflict and Scheduling
93
1
Multiple Goals Satisfied in One Activity
94
1
Programs Seem Different from Other Goals
95
2
Analog versus Digital Functioning
95
1
Opportunistic Planning and Stages in Decision Making
96
1
Goal Hierarchies and Traits
97
3
Traits and Goals
97
1
Viewing Others in Terms of Traits versus Actions
98
1
Traits and Behaviors in Memory
99
1
Goals and the Self
100
3
Self-Determination Theory and the Self
101
2
Public and Private Aspects of the Self
103
17
Aspects of Self
103
7
Further Distinctions
105
2
Recent Statements
107
1
Aspects of Self and Classes of Goal
108
2
Behavioral Self-Regulation and Private versus Social Goals
110
3
Formation of Intentions
110
2
Differential Valuation of Personal and Social Goals
112
1
Self-Consciousness and Self-Awareness in Self-Regulation
113
7
Anticipating Interaction
113
2
Conformity
115
1
Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Behavior
116
2
Private Preferences and Subjective Norms Vary in Their Content
118
2
Control Processes and Affect
120
28
Goals, Rate of Progress, and Affect
121
4
Discrepancy Reduction and Rate of Reduction
121
3
Progress Toward a Goal versus Completion of Subgoals
124
1
Evidence on the Affective Consequences of Progress
125
5
Hsee and Abelson
125
1
Lawrence, Carver, and Scheier
126
2
Brunstein
128
1
Affleck and Colleagues
129
1
Questions
130
3
Is This Really a Feedback System?
130
1
Does Positive Affect Lead to Coasting?
131
2
A Cruise-Control Model of Affect
133
1
Changes in Rate: Acceleration and Deceleration
133
4
Subjective Experience of Acceleration and Deceleration
134
1
Surprise
135
1
Research
136
1
Affect from Discrepancy-Enlarging Loops
137
3
Doing Well, Doing Poorly
138
1
Activation Asymmetry between Dimensions
139
1
Affect and Behavior
140
6
Affect in the Absence of Action
140
1
Affect from Recollection or Imagination
141
1
Potential for Affect and Levels of Abstraction
141
1
Merging Affect and Action
142
2
Two Systems in Concert: Other Applications
144
2
Breadth of Application
146
2
Affect: Issues and Comparisons
148
23
Meta-Level Standards
148
5
Meta-Level Standards Vary in Stringency
148
1
Influences on Stringency
149
1
Changing Meta-Level Standards
150
3
Further Issues
153
6
Stress as the Disruption of Goal-Directed Activity
153
1
Goal Attainment and Negative Affect
154
1
Conflict and Mixed Feelings
155
1
Time Windows for Input to Meta-Monitoring Can Vary
156
2
Are There Other Mechanisms That Produce Affect?
158
1
Relationships to Other Theories
159
12
Affect and Reprioritization
159
2
Self-Discrepancy Theory
161
3
Positive and Negative Affect
164
2
Biological Models of Bases of Affect
166
5
Expectancies and Disengagement
171
19
Affect Is Linked to Expectancy
171
4
Feelings and Confidence
172
1
Mood and Decision Making
173
1
Confidence and Brain Function
174
1
Interruption and Further Assessment
175
5
Interruption
175
1
Assessment of Expectancies
176
2
Generality and Specificity of Expectancies
178
2
Effort versus Disengagement
180
8
Theory
180
2
Research: Comparisons with Standards
182
1
Research: Responses to Fear
183
1
Research: Persistence
184
1
Mental Disengagement, Impaired Task Performance, and Negative Rumination
185
1
Self-Focus, Task Focus, and Rumination
186
2
Effort and Disengagement: The Great Divide
188
2
Is Disengagement Good or Bad?
189
1
Disengagement: Issues and Comparisons
190
27
Scaling Back Goals as Limited Disengagement
190
3
Problems with Limited Disengagement
191
1
Scaling Back Goals as Changing Velocity Reference Value
192
1
When Giving Up Is Not a Tenable Option
193
4
Hierarchicality and Importance Can Impede Disengagement
193
2
Inability to Disengage and Responses to Health Threats
195
1
Helplessness
196
1
Watersheds, Disjunctions, and Bifurcations among Responses
197
3
Other Disjunctive Motivational Models
198
2
Does Disengagement Imply an Override Mechanism?
200
4
Disengagement, or Competing Motives?
201
2
Loss of Commitment
203
1
Further Theoretical Comparisons
204
4
Efficacy Expectancy and Expectancy of Success
204
1
The Sense of Personal Control
205
3
Engagement and Disengagement in Other Literatures
208
7
Goal Setting
209
1
Social Facilitation
209
1
Upward and Downward Social Comparison
210
1
Self-Verification
211
1
Performance Goals and Learning Goals
212
1
Curiosity
213
1
Stress and Coping
214
1
Summary
215
2
Applications to Problems in Living
217
17
Regulating with the Wrong Feedback
217
2
Automatic Distortion of Feedback
218
1
Goals Operating out of Awareness
219
1
Doubt as a Root of Problems
220
2
Automatic Use of Previously Encoded Success Expectancies
221
1
Premature Disengagement of Effort
222
4
Test Anxiety
222
2
Social Anxiety
224
2
Failure to Disengage Completely When Doing So Is the Right Response
226
2
``Hanging On'' Is Related to Distress
227
1
When Is Disengagement the Right Response?
228
1
Lives out of Balance
228
2
Complexity of the Self
230
1
Rumination
230
4
Rumination as Problem Solving and Attempted Discrepancy Reduction
231
1
Rumination as Dysfunctional
232
2
Hierarchicality and Problems in Living
234
16
Links between Concrete Goals and the Core Values of the Self
234
4
Hierarchicality as an Impediment to Disengagement
234
2
Problems as Conflicts among Goals
236
1
Problems as Absence of Links from High to Low Levels
237
1
Reorganization of the Self
237
1
Making Low Levels Functionally Superordinate
238
9
Reduction of High-Level Control by Deindividuation and Alcohol
238
3
Relinquishing or Abandoning High-Level Control as Escape from the Self
241
1
Relinquishing or Abandoning High-Level Control as Problem Solving
242
1
Further Comparisons
243
3
Failure of High-Level Override: Symmetry in Application
246
1
Residing Too Much at High Levels
247
3
Chaos and Dynamic Systems
250
25
Dynamic Systems
250
12
Nonlinearity
251
3
Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions
254
2
Phase Space, Attractors, and Repellers
256
2
Another Way of Picturing Attractors
258
2
Variability and Phase Changes
260
2
Simple Applications of Dynamic Systems Thinking
262
13
Goals as Attractors
263
2
Shifts among Attractors and Motivational Dynamics
265
1
Variability in the Construing of Social Behavior
266
2
Variability and Consciousness
268
1
Consciousness, Attractors, and Importance in Day-to-Day Life
268
3
Chaotic Variation as Frequency Distributions
271
2
Variability of Behavior in Iterative Systems
273
2
Catastrophe Theory
275
21
The Cusp Catastrophe
275
7
Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions
276
2
Hysteresis
278
1
Catastrophes in Physical Reality
279
2
Variability
281
1
Applications of Catastrophe Theory
282
8
Perception
282
2
Dating and Mating
284
1
Relationship Formation and Dissolution
285
1
Groups
286
1
Persuasion and Belief Perseverance
287
1
Rumination versus Action
288
1
Expectancies
289
1
Effort versus Disengagement
290
6
Importance or Investment as a Critical Control Parameter
294
2
Further Applications to Problems in Living
296
21
Catastrophes and Psychological Problems
296
7
A Remedy: Care Less
299
2
Chaotically Caring
301
1
Further Possible Manifestations of the Cusp Catastrophe
302
1
Dynamic Systems and the Change Process
303
8
Attractors, Minima, Stability, and Optimality
303
2
Stability, Adaptation, and Optimality
305
1
Minima in Specific Problems
306
1
Therapy
307
2
Destabilization and the Metaphors of Dynamic Systems
309
2
Extensions
311
6
Destabilization, Reorganization, and Beneficial Effects of Trauma
311
1
Psychological Growth
312
5
Is Behavior Controlled or Does It Emerge?
317
29
Coordination and Complexity Emergent from Simple Sources
317
6
Some Apparent Complexity Need Not Be Created
318
2
Properties Emergent from Social Interaction
320
1
Does Emergence of Some Imply Emergence of All?
321
1
Two Modes of Functioning?
322
1
Connectionism
323
9
Need Everything Be Distributed?
327
2
Planning and Goal-Relevant Decisions
329
2
Dual-Process Models
331
1
Two-Mode Models in Personality --- Social Psychology
332
5
Cognitive --- Experiential Self-Theory
333
1
Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets
334
1
Comparisons among Theories
335
1
Two Automaticities
336
1
Autonomous Artificial Agents
337
7
Complexity and Coordination
338
1
Another View of Goals in Autonomous Agents
339
4
Comparison with Two-Mode Models of Thinking
343
1
Conclusions
344
2
Goal Engagement, Life, and Death
346
19
Conceptualization
347
3
Goal Engagement and Well-Being
350
1
Disengagement and Death
350
3
Doubt, Disengagement, and Self-Destructive Behavior
350
2
Disengagement and Passive Death
352
1
Disengagement, Disease, and Death
353
5
Disengagement and Disease Vulnerability
353
1
Doubt, Disengagement, and Adverse Responses to Disease
354
2
Disengagement, Recurrence, Disease Progression, and Death
356
1
Conclusions
357
1
Dynamics and Engagement
358
7
Aging and the Reduction of Importance
361
4
References
365
58
Name Index
423
12
Subject Index
435