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Tables of Contents for Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods
1
34
Introduction
1
1
General Measurement System
2
2
Experimental Test Plan
4
9
Variables
5
1
Parameters
6
1
Noise and Interference
6
2
Random Tests
8
4
Replication and Repetition
12
1
Concomitant Methods
13
1
Calibration
13
8
Static Calibration
13
1
Dynamic Calibration
14
1
Static Sensitivity
14
1
Range
15
1
Accuracy
15
1
Precision and Bias Errors
15
3
Sequential Test
18
1
Random Test
18
3
Standards
21
6
Basic Dimensions and Their Units
22
2
Derived Units
24
1
Force
24
1
Other Units
24
1
Electrical Dimensions
25
1
Hierarchy of Standards
26
1
Test Standards
27
1
Presenting Data
27
1
Rectangular Coordinate Format
27
1
Semilog Coordinate Format
27
1
Full-Log Coordinate Format
28
1
Summary
28
7
References
28
1
Nomenclature
28
1
Problems
29
6
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals
35
35
Introduction
35
1
Input--Output Signal Concepts
35
4
Classification of Waveforms
36
2
Signal Waveforms
38
1
Signal Analysis
39
5
Effects of Signal-Averaging Period
41
1
DC Offset
42
2
Signal Amplitude and Frequency
44
13
Periodic Signals
45
2
Frequency Analysis
47
2
Fourier Series and Coefficients
49
2
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Periods
51
6
Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum
57
7
Discrete Fourier Transform
59
5
Summary
64
6
References
64
1
Nomenclature
64
1
Problems
65
5
Measurement System Behavior
70
39
Introduction
70
1
General Model for a Measurement System
70
4
Dynamic Measurements
70
2
Measurement System Model
72
2
Special Cases of the General System Model
74
22
Zero-Order Systems
74
2
First-Order Systems
76
11
Second-Order Systems
87
9
Transfer Functions
96
2
Phase Linearity
98
1
Multiple-Function Inputs
99
2
Coupled Systems
101
3
Summary
104
5
References
104
1
Nomenclature
104
1
Problems
105
4
Probability and Statistics
109
40
Introduction
109
1
Statistical Measurement Theory
110
6
Probability Density Functions
110
6
Infinite Statistics
116
5
Finite Statistics
121
5
Standard Deviation of the Means
123
2
Pooled Statistics
125
1
Chi-Squared Distribution
126
5
Precision Interval in a Sample Variance
127
2
Goodness-of-Fit Test
129
2
Regression Analysis
131
7
Least-Squares Regression Analysis
132
6
Data Outlier Detection
138
2
Number of Measurements Required
140
3
Summary
143
6
References
143
1
Nomenclature
143
1
Problems
144
5
Uncertainty Analysis
149
43
Introduction
149
1
Measurement Errors
149
2
Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
151
4
Combining Elemental Errors: RSS method
152
1
Design-Stage Uncertainty
152
3
Error Sources
155
2
Calibration Errors
156
1
Data-Acquisition Errors
156
1
Data-Reduction Errors
157
1
Bias and Precision Errors
157
2
Bias Error
157
1
Precision Error
158
1
Uncertainty Analysis: Error Propagation
159
4
Propagation of Error
159
4
Advanced-Stage and Single-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
163
7
Zero-Order Uncertainty
164
1
Higher-Order Uncertainty
164
1
Nth-Order Uncertainty
165
5
Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
170
13
Propagation of Elemental Errors
170
6
Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result
176
7
Summary
183
9
References
183
1
Nomenclature
184
1
Problems
184
8
Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements
192
43
Introduction
192
1
Analog Devices: Current Measurements
192
4
Direct Current
192
3
Alternating Current
195
1
Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements
196
5
Analog Meters
197
1
Oscilloscope
197
2
Potentiometer
199
2
Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements
201
7
Ohmmeter Circuits
201
2
Bridge Circuits
203
5
Loading Errors and Impedance Matching
208
5
Loading Errors for A Voltage Dividing Circuit
209
1
Interstage Loading Errors
210
3
Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers
213
3
Analog Signal Conditioning: Special Purpose Circuits
216
5
Analog Voltage Comparator
216
1
Sample and Hold Circuit
217
1
Charge Amplifier
217
2
Current Loop: 4--20 mA
219
1
Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits
219
2
Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters
221
5
Butterworth Filter Design
222
3
Bessel Filter Design
225
1
Active Filters
226
1
Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires
226
3
Ground and Ground Loops
227
1
Shields
228
1
Connecting Wires
229
1
Summary
229
6
References
230
1
Nomenclature
230
1
Problems
230
5
Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition
235
48
Introduction
235
1
Sampling Concepts
235
9
Sample Rate
236
2
Alias Frequencies
238
3
Amplitude Ambiguity
241
2
Selecting Sample Rate and Data Number
243
1
Digital Devices: Bits and Words
244
2
Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals
246
1
Voltage Measurements
246
12
Digital-to-Analog Converter
247
1
Analog-to-Digital Converter
248
9
Digital Voltmeters
257
1
Data-Acquisition Systems
258
1
Data-Acquisition System Components
259
6
Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification
259
3
Analog Multiplexers
262
1
A/D Converters
262
1
D/A Converters
262
1
Digital Input-Output
262
1
Central Processing Unit: Microprocessor
263
1
Memory
263
1
Central Bus
264
1
Buffers
265
1
Analog Input-Output Communication
265
5
Data-Acquisition Boards
265
2
Single- and Differential-Ended Connections
267
2
Special Signal Conditioning Modules
269
1
Data-Acquisition Triggering
269
1
Data Transfer
270
1
Digital Input-Output Communication
270
8
Serial Communications
271
2
Universal Serial Bus
273
1
Parallel Communications
274
4
Summary
278
5
References
278
1
Nomenclature
279
1
Problems
279
4
Temperature Measurements
283
62
Introduction
283
1
Historical Background
283
1
Temperature Standards and Definition
284
3
Fixed-Point Temperatures and Interpolation
284
1
Temperature Scales and Standards
285
2
Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion
287
2
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
287
1
Bimetallic Thermometers
288
1
Electrical Resistance Thermometry
289
13
Resistance Temperature Detectors
289
8
Thermistors
297
5
Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
302
20
Seebeck Effect
303
1
Peltier Effect
304
1
Thomson Effect
304
1
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
305
1
Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples
306
1
Thermocouple Standards
307
3
Thermocouple Voltage Measurement
310
6
Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits
316
2
Data Acquisition Considerations
318
4
Radiative Temperature Measurements
322
5
Radiation Fundamentals
322
1
Radiation Detectors
323
2
Radiative Temperature Measurements
325
1
Optical Fiber Thermometers
326
1
Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement
327
10
Insertion Errors
327
8
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement
335
2
Summary
337
8
References
337
1
Nomenclature
338
1
Problems
339
6
Pressure and Velocity Measurements
345
44
Introduction
345
1
Pressure Concepts
345
3
Pressure Reference Instruments
348
8
McLeod Gauge
348
1
Barometer
349
1
Manometers
350
4
Deadweight Testers
354
2
Pressure Transducers
356
8
Bourdon Tube
357
1
Bellows and Capsule
358
2
Diaphragms
360
4
Pressure Transducer Calibration
364
2
Static Calibration
364
1
Dynamic Calibration
364
2
Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids
366
3
Total Pressure Measurement
367
1
Static Pressure Measurement
368
1
Design and Installation: Transmission Effects
369
5
Gases
370
2
Liquids
372
1
Heavily Damped Systems
373
1
Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems
374
9
Pitot--Static Pressure Probe
375
2
Thermal Anemometry
377
2
Doppler Anemometry
379
3
Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods
382
1
Laser Doppler Anemometers
383
1
Summary
383
6
References
383
1
Nomenclature
384
1
Problems
384
5
Flow Measurements
389
40
Introduction
389
1
Historical Comments
389
1
Flow Rate Concepts
390
2
Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination
392
2
Pressure Differential Meters
394
18
Obstruction Meters
394
3
Orifice Meter
397
2
Venturi Meter
399
2
Flow Nozzles
401
4
Sonic Nozzles
405
2
Obstruction Meter Selection
407
4
Laminar Flow Elements
411
1
Insertion Volume Flow Meters
412
7
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
413
1
Vortex Shedding Meters
414
2
Rotameters
416
2
Turbine Meters
418
1
Positive-Displacement Meters
418
1
Mass Flow Meters
419
4
Thermal Flow Meter
419
1
Coriolis Flow Meter
420
3
Flow Meter Calibration and Standards
423
2
Summary
425
4
References
425
1
Nomenclature
425
1
Problems
426
3
Strain Measurement
429
37
Introduction
429
1
Stress and Strain
429
3
Resistance Strain Gauges
432
6
Metallic Gauges
432
4
Semiconductor Strain Gauges
436
2
Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
438
4
Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement
442
12
The Multiple Gauge Bridge
442
1
Bridge Constant
443
2
Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation
445
5
Construction and Installation
450
1
Analysis of Strain Gauge Data
450
1
Signal Conditioning
451
2
Uncertainties in Multichannel Measurements
453
1
Optical Strain Measuring Techniques
454
6
Basic Characteristics of Light
455
1
Photoelastic Measurement
456
1
Moire Methods
457
3
Summary
460
6
References
460
1
Nomenclature
461
1
Problems
461
5
Metrology, Motion, Force, and Power Measurements
466
43
Introduction
466
1
Dimensional Measurements: Metrology
466
8
Historical Perspective
466
1
Principles of Linear Measurement
467
6
Optical Methods
473
1
Displacement Measurements
474
3
Potentiometers
474
1
Linear Variable Differential Transformers
474
3
Measurement of Mass
477
5
Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration
482
7
Seismic Transducer
482
6
Transducers for Shock and Vibration Measurement
488
1
Velocity Measurements
489
7
Linear Velocity Measurements
489
1
Velocity from Displacement or Acceleration
489
3
Moving Coil Transducers
492
1
Angular Velocity Measurements
492
4
Force Measurement
496
4
Load Cells
496
4
Torque Measurements
500
2
Measurement of Torque on Rotating Shafts
501
1
Mechanical Power Measurements
502
2
Rotational Speed, Torque, and Shaft Power
502
1
Cradled Dynamometers
503
1
Summary
504
5
References
506
1
Nomenclature
506
1
Problems
506
3
Appendix A: A Guide for Technical Writing
509
7
Appendix B: Property Data and Conversion Factors
516
7
Glossary
523
8
Index
531