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Tables of Contents for Research Methods in Health
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xiv
Acknowledgements
xv
Section I Investigating health services and health: the scope of research
1
98
Evaluating health services: multidisciplinary collaboration
5
12
Introduction
6
1
Health services research
6
1
The assessment of quality
7
1
Audit
7
1
Medical audit, clinical audit and quality assurance
8
1
Evaluation
9
1
Structure, process and outcome
9
2
Appropriateness and inappropriateness
11
1
Outcome
12
2
Summary of main points
14
1
Key questions
15
1
Key terms
15
1
Recommended reading
15
2
Social research on health: sociological and psychological concepts and approaches
17
29
Introduction
18
1
Sociological and psychological research on health
18
1
Health and illness
19
1
The bio-medical model
19
1
The social model of health
20
1
Lay definitions of health
20
1
Lay theories of illness
21
1
Variations in medical and lay perspectives
22
1
Social factors in illness and responses to illness
23
1
Social variations in health: structural health inequalities
23
1
Psycho-social stress and responses to stress
24
2
Stigma, normalisation and adjustment
26
2
The Sick Role and illness behaviour
28
4
Models of health behaviour
32
1
Health lifestyles
32
1
Health behaviour
33
1
Models of health-related actions
33
4
Health-related quality of life
36
1
Theoretical influences on measurement
37
2
Interactions between health professionals and patients
39
1
Communication
39
1
Patients' evaluations of health care
40
3
Summary of main points
43
1
Key questions
44
1
Key terms
45
1
Recommended reading
45
1
Health needs and their assessment: demography and epidemiology
46
32
Ian Rees Jones
Introduction
47
1
The assessment of health needs
47
1
Health needs
47
1
The need for health and the need for health care
48
3
Methods of assessing helath needs
51
3
The role of epidemiological and demographic research
54
1
Epidemiology
55
1
The role of epidemiology
55
1
Epidemiological research
55
3
Methods of epidemiology
58
5
Assessing morbidity, mortality, incidence and prevalence
63
4
The role of demography
67
1
Demographical methods in relation to assessing need
67
1
Rates: births and deaths
68
2
The need to standardise
70
3
Analyses of survival
73
2
Summary of main points
75
1
Key questions
76
1
Key terms
76
1
Recommended reading
77
1
Costing health services: health economics
78
21
Ian Rees Jones
Introduction
79
1
Health economics
79
2
Demand, utility and supply
81
1
Economic appraisal
82
1
Cost minimisation
82
1
Cost-effectiveness
83
1
Cost-benefit analysis
83
1
Marginal cost
84
1
Complete costs
84
1
Event pathways
85
1
Opportunity cost
86
2
Discounting
88
1
Cost-utility analysis
88
1
Costing health services
88
4
Study methods used for costings
92
1
Cost-utility analyses and economic valuations of health
93
4
Summary of main points
97
1
Key questions
97
1
Key terms
98
1
Recommended reading
98
1
Section II The philosophy, theory and practice of research
99
46
The philosophical framework of measurement
101
16
Introduction
102
1
The philosophy of science
102
1
Paradigms
103
1
Objectivity and value freedom
103
1
Deductive and inductive approaches
104
4
The survival of hypotheses and paradigm shifts
108
1
Theoretical influences on social research methods
108
1
Social science and grounded theory
109
1
Positivism
109
2
Phenomenology
111
3
Choice of methods
114
1
Summary of main points
115
1
Key questions
115
1
Key terms
116
1
Recommended reading
116
1
The principles of research
117
28
Introduction
118
1
Searching the literature
118
1
Literature reviews
119
2
Meta-analyses
121
1
Rigour
121
1
Aims, objectives and hypotheses
121
2
Concepts and theories
123
2
Research proposals
125
1
Research design and research methods
125
2
Selection of measurement instruments
127
1
Level of data and statistical techniques
127
3
Reliability and validity
130
5
Threats to reliability and validity
135
3
Ethics and ethical committees
138
2
Dissemination
140
1
Summary of main points
141
1
Key questions
142
1
Key terms
143
1
Recommended reading
143
2
Section III Quantitative research: sampling and research methods
145
80
Sample size and sampling for quantitative research
147
25
Introduction
148
1
Calculation of sample size, statistical significance and sampling
148
1
The sampling unit
148
1
Calculation of sample size and statistical power
148
2
Testing hypotheses, statistical significance, the null hypothesis
150
1
Type I and type II errors
151
2
One- or two-sided hypothesis testing
153
1
Statistical, social and clinical significance
154
1
Sampling frames
155
2
Sampling
157
1
Confidence intervals and the normal distribution
158
4
External validity of the sample results
162
1
Methods of sampling
163
1
Random sampling
163
3
Non-random sampling: quota sampling
166
1
Sampling for qualitative research
167
1
Sampling for telephone interviews
168
1
Summary of main points
169
1
Key questions
170
1
Key terms
171
1
Notes
171
1
Recommended reading
171
1
Quantitative research: surveys
172
18
Introduction
173
1
Survey methods
173
1
The survey
173
1
Descriptive and analytic surveys
174
1
Retrospective (ex post facto) cross-sectional surveys
175
1
Prospective, longitudinal surveys
176
2
Cross-sectional and longitudinal cohort studies
178
2
Triangulated research methods and surveys
180
1
Methods of analysing change in longitudinal surveys
181
1
Analysing change
181
4
Sample attrition and analysing change
185
2
Stopping rules and analysis of interim results
187
1
Summary of main points
188
1
Key questions
188
1
Key terms
189
1
Recommended reading
189
1
Quantitative research: experiments and other analytic methods of investigation
190
19
Introduction
191
1
The experimental method
191
3
Internal and external validity
194
3
Reducing bias in participants and the investigating team
197
1
The randomised controlled trial in health care evaluation
198
3
Other analytic methods of investigation
201
3
Before-after study with non-randomised control group
204
1
After-only study with non-randomised control group
204
1
Time series studies using different samples (historical controls)
205
1
Geographical comparisons
205
1
People acting as own controls
205
1
Within-person, controlled site study
206
1
Threats to the validity of causal inferences in other analytic studies
206
1
Summary of main points
206
1
Key questions
207
1
Key terms
208
1
Recommended reading
208
1
Sample selection and group assignment methods in experiments and other analytic methods
209
16
Introduction
210
1
Random sampling
210
1
Convenience and purposive sampling
210
1
Volunteers
211
1
Type of investigation and type of sampling frame
211
1
Response rates: experiments and other analytical studies
212
1
Ensuring similarity on group characteristics:random allocation
213
4
Other allocation methods: cross-over methods
217
1
Methods of group design for improving the basic RCT
218
2
Common methods of controlling to obtain equivalence in non-randomised studies
220
2
Summary of main points
222
1
Key questions
222
1
Key terms
223
1
Recommended reading
223
2
Section IV The tools of quantitative research
225
86
Data collection methods in quantitative research: questionnaires, interviews and their response rates
227
14
Introduction
228
1
Structured and semi-structured questionnaires
228
1
Postal questionnaires and self-administration
229
1
Structured and semi-structured interviews
230
2
Non-response
232
1
Response rate
233
5
Item non-response
238
1
Summary of main points
239
1
Key questions
240
1
Key terms
240
1
Recommended reading
240
1
Questionnaire design
241
30
Introduction
242
1
Planning
242
1
Piloting
242
1
Questionnaire layout
243
1
The covering letter
244
1
Question form, order and wording
245
1
Rules for form
245
7
Scores
252
1
Constructing additional items and scales
253
1
Attitude measurement scales
254
6
Rules for order and wording
260
4
Rules for questions by type of topic
264
3
Checking the accuracy of responses
267
1
Translating an instrument and cultural equivalence
268
1
Summary of main points
269
1
Key questions
270
1
Key terms
270
1
Recommended reading
270
1
Techniques of survey interviewing
271
24
Introduction
272
1
Types of interview
272
1
The interviewer
272
2
Interviewer handbooks
274
2
Sampling by interviewers
276
1
Interviewer training
277
1
Interviewer bias
278
1
Persistence in contacting respondents
279
1
Approaching respondents
280
1
Motivating people to respond
280
2
Third parties and distractions
282
1
Beginning the interview
283
2
Rules for structured interviewing
285
1
Interviewing techniques
286
5
The end of the interview
291
1
Recording responses
291
1
Debriefing
292
1
Quality control
293
1
Summary of main points
293
1
Key questions
294
1
Key terms
294
1
Recommended reading
294
1
Preparation of quantitative data for coding and analysis
295
16
Introduction
296
1
Coding
296
2
Coding transfer sheets
298
1
The code book
299
1
Numerical values for codes
299
1
Coding open questions
300
2
Coding closed questions
302
1
Checking returned questionnaires
303
1
Data entry on to computer
303
1
Cleaning the data
304
1
Checking for bias in the analyses
305
1
Missing values and data checks
306
1
Computer packages for the analysis of quantitative data
307
1
The analysis
307
1
Summary of main points
308
1
Key questions
309
1
Key terms
309
1
Recommended reading
310
1
Section V Qualitative and combined research methods, and their analysis
311
75
Unstructured and structured observational studies
315
20
Introduction
316
1
Observation
316
1
Participant observation
317
1
Gaining access
318
1
Hardware: video- and audiotapes
319
1
Establishing validity and reliability
320
2
Observation and triangulated methods
322
1
Structured observations: what to record
322
2
Time sampling
324
1
Recording observed (non-verbal) body language
324
1
Unstructured observations
325
1
Combining structured and unstructured recordings
326
2
Theoretical analysis of observational data
328
1
Categorisation of observational data
329
1
Narratives
330
1
Audio-observation: conversation sampling
331
1
Recording and analysing verbal communication
332
1
Summary of main points
332
1
Key questions
333
1
Key terms
333
1
Recommended reading
334
1
Unstructured interviewing and focus groups
335
23
Introduction
336
1
Unstructured interviews
336
1
Types of unstructured, in-depth interview
336
1
In-depth interviewing: sample selection and size
337
2
The process of the interview
339
1
Techniques of in-depth interviewing
340
4
Analysis and presentation of in-depth interview data
344
1
Categorising qualitative data: content analysis
344
3
Rules for coding
347
1
Computer programs for analysing qualitative data
348
1
Narrative format
349
3
Focus groups
352
1
Focus group interviews
352
1
Group composition
352
1
Appropriate topics for focus groups
353
1
Methods of analysis
354
1
Summary of main points
355
1
Key questions
356
1
Key terms
357
1
Recommended reading
357
1
Other methods using both qualitative and quantitative approaches: case studies, consensus methods, action research and document research
358
28
Introduction
359
1
Case studies
359
1
The study of single or small series of cases
359
1
Examples of case studies
360
2
The analysis
362
1
Consensus methods
362
1
Methods for establishing and developing consensus
362
1
Delphi technique
362
1
Consensus development panels
363
1
Nominal group process
363
1
The analysis
364
2
Action research and rapid appraisal techniques
366
1
Action research
366
1
Stages of action research
367
3
Rapid appraisal
370
1
Document research
371
1
Documents as sources of, or for, research
371
1
Types of documents
372
1
Authenticity, bias, error and interpretation
373
1
Types of document research
374
3
Analysis of documents
377
4
Diary methods
381
1
Analysis of diaries
382
1
Summary of main points
383
1
Key questions
384
1
Key terms
384
1
Recommended reading
385
1
Glossary
386
8
References
394
28
Index
422