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Tables of Contents for Earth Science
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Earth Science
2
14
PROLOGUE
3
1
INTRODUCTION
4
1
EARTH SCIENCE
5
2
EARTH AND ITS SYSTEMS
7
4
Perspective 1.1: Lost Worlds
10
1
EARTH SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
11
1
TIME AND THE EARTH
12
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
13
3
Important Terms
14
1
Review Questions
14
1
Points to Ponder
14
1
Additional Readings
15
1
World Wide Web Sites
15
1
CHAPTER 2 Minerals and Mineral Resources
16
16
PROLOGUE
17
1
INTRODUCTION
18
1
WHAT IS THE EARTH MADE OF?
18
1
WHAT IS A MINERAL?
18
1
ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
19
1
BONDING: WHAT HOLDS EVERYTHING TOGETHER
20
1
IDENTIFYING MINERALS
21
4
The Appearance of Minerals
21
1
Other Properties of Minerals
22
1
Perspective 2.1: Understanding Chemical Formulas
22
3
NONSILICATE MINERALS
25
1
Perspective 2.2: Crystals
26
1
SILICATE MINERALS
26
1
GEOLOGIC RESOURCES
27
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
30
2
Important Terms
30
1
Review Questions
30
1
Points to Ponder
31
1
Additional Readings
31
1
World Wide Web Sites
31
1
CHAPTER 3 Rocks
32
24
PROLOGUE
32
1
INTRODUCTION
32
1
ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE
32
2
MAGMA, LAVA, AND IGNEOUS ROCKS
34
5
Melting and Crystallization
35
1
Classification of Igneous Rocks
35
3
Bowen's Series
38
1
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
39
5
Lithification: Sediment to Sedimentary Rock
40
1
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
40
2
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
42
1
Sedimentary Structures and Fossils
42
2
Environment of Deposition
44
1
METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
44
6
Perspective 3.1: Focus on the Environment: The Green River Formation
46
3
Heat and Pressure in the Earth
49
1
Metamorphic Minerals and Facies
50
1
ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC RESOURCES
50
2
CHAPTER SUMMARY
52
4
Important Terms
53
1
Review Questions
53
1
Points to Ponder
54
1
Additional Readings
54
1
World Wide Web Sites
55
1
CHAPTER 4 Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting
56
26
PROLOGUE
57
1
WEATHERING
58
1
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
58
3
Frost Wedging
59
1
Salt Crystal Growth
59
1
Pressure Release
59
1
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
60
1
Activities of Organisms
60
1
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
61
1
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE RATE OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
61
2
SOIL
63
1
THE SOIL PROFILE
63
2
Factors Controlling Soil Formation
64
1
SOIL DEGRADATION
65
2
Perspective 4.1: The Dust Bowl
66
1
WEATHERING AND MINERAL RESOURCES
67
1
MASS WASTING
67
1
FACTORS INFLUENCING MASS WASTING
67
3
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
70
6
Falls
71
1
Slides
71
3
Flows
74
1
Complex Movements
75
1
RECOGNIZING AND MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS OF MASS MOVEMENTS
76
2
Perspective 4.2: The Vaiont Dam Disaster
77
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
78
4
Important Terms
79
1
Review Questions
79
1
Points to Ponder
80
1
Additional Readings
80
1
World Wide Web Sites
81
1
CHAPTER 5 Running Water and Groundwater
82
26
PROLOGUE
83
1
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
84
1
RUNNING WATER
85
1
STREAM EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
86
1
STREAM DEPOSITION
86
4
Perspective 5.1: Predicting and Controlling Floods
90
1
DRAINAGE BASINS AND DRAINAGE PATTERNS
90
1
BASE LEVEL AND THE GRADED STREAM
91
3
DEVELOPMENT OF STREAM VALLEYS
94
2
GROUNDWATER
96
1
Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle
96
1
POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
96
1
THE WATER TABLE
97
1
SPRINGS, WATER WELLS, AND ARTESIAN SYSTEMS
97
2
GROUNDWATER EROSION AND DEPOSITION
99
2
MODIFICATIONS OF THE GROUNDWATER SYSTEM
101
3
Perspective 5.2: Focus on the Environment: Radioactive Waste Disposal
103
1
HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS
104
1
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
105
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
105
3
Important Terms
106
1
Review Questions
106
1
Points to Ponder
107
1
Additional Readings
107
1
World Wide Web Sites
107
1
CHAPTER 6 Glaciers, Deserts, and the Work of the Wind
108
26
PROLOGUE
109
1
GLACIERS AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
110
1
THE ORIGIN OF GLACIAL ICE
110
1
TYPES OF GLACIERS
111
1
THE GLACIAL BUDGET
111
1
RATES OF GLACIAL MOVEMENT
112
1
GLACIAL EROSION AND TRANSPORT
112
4
Erosional Landforms of Valley Glaciers
113
1
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciers
114
2
GLACIAL DEPOSITS
116
2
Landforms Composed of Till
116
1
Landforms Composed of Outwash
117
1
PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION
118
1
Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes
118
1
Changes in Sea Level
119
1
CAUSES OF GLACIATION
119
1
Perspective 6.1: Glacial Lake Missoula and the Channeled Scablands
120
1
DESERTS
120
2
PROCESSES IN DESERTS
122
1
DESERTS AND WIND
123
2
Perspective 6.2: Focus on the Environment: Desertification
124
1
WIND DEPOSITS
125
2
DESERT LANDFORMS
127
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
130
4
Important Terms
131
1
Review Questions
131
1
Points to Ponder
132
1
Additional Readings
132
1
World Wide Web Sites
133
1
CHAPTER 7 Plate Tectonics
134
26
PROLOGUE
135
1
INTRODUCTION
136
1
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
137
2
Continental Fit
137
1
Glacial Evidence
138
1
Fossil Evidence
138
1
Similarities of Rocks and Mountain Ranges
139
1
ALFRED WEGENER AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
139
1
PALEOMAGNETISM AND POLAR WANDERING
140
2
PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES
142
5
Divergent Plate Boundaries: Where New Oceans Form
142
2
Convergent Plate Boundaries
144
1
Hot Spots
145
1
Transform Faults
146
1
THE DRIVING MECHANISM OF PLATE TECTONICS
147
2
DETERMINING PAST PLATE POSITIONS
149
3
Perspective 7.1: How Geologists See the World
150
2
PLATE TECTONICS AND EARTH HISTORY
152
4
The Assembly and Breakup of Pangaea
152
1
What of the Future?
152
2
Perspective 7.2: History of the Mediterranean
154
2
PLATE TECTONICS AND GEOLOGIC RESOURCES
156
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
156
4
Important Terms
157
1
Review Questions
157
1
Points to Ponder
158
1
Additional Readings
158
1
World Wide Web Sites
159
1
CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Earth's Interior
160
26
PROLOGUE
161
2
INTRODUCTION
163
1
SEISMOLOGY AND SEISMOGRAPHS
164
1
THE FREQUENCY AND DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
164
8
Seismic Waves
167
1
Locating an Earthquake
168
1
Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude
169
3
HOW AND WHY EARTHQUAKES OCCUR
172
1
THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
172
4
Perspective 8.1: Safe Buildings for Dangerous Places
174
2
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
176
3
Perspective 8.2: Predicting Earthquakes Without Instruments?
178
1
EARTHQUAKE CONTROL
179
1
EARTH'S INTERIOR
180
2
The Core
180
1
The Mantle
181
1
EARTH'S INTERNAL HEAT
182
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
183
3
Important Terms
183
1
Review Questions
184
1
Points to Ponder
184
1
Additional Readings
185
1
World Wide Web Sites
185
1
CHAPTER 9 Volcanoes and Igneous Activity
186
24
PROLOGUE
187
1
INTRODUCTION
188
1
MOLTEN ROCK IN EARTH
188
1
PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANOES
189
1
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND VOLCANOES
190
6
Perspective 9.1: The Eruption of Mount St. Helens
192
4
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND VOLCANIC HAZARDS
196
5
Perspective 9.2: Focus on the Environment: Volcanoes and Global Climate
198
3
LIFE HISTORY OF VOLCANOES
201
4
INTRUSIONS
205
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
208
2
Important Terms
208
1
Review Questions
208
1
Points to Ponder
209
1
Additional Readings
209
1
World Wide Web Sites
209
1
CHAPTER 10 Mountains and Mountain Building
210
28
PROLOGUE
211
1
INTRODUCTION
212
1
EARTH FORCES AND THE DEFORMATION OF ROCKS
212
3
BRITTLE DEFORMATION: FAULTS AND JOINTS
215
2
DUCTILE DEFORMATION: FOLDS
217
3
LARGE-SCALE GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND GEOLOGIC MAPS
220
1
LARGE-SCALE MOVEMENTS OF THE CRUST
221
5
Isostasy
221
3
Perspective 10.1: Geophysics: Seeing Underground
224
1
Orogeny
225
1
SUBDUCTION AND OROGENY
226
9
Ocean-Ocean Subduction Zones
226
2
Perspective 10.2: Focus on the Environment: Crustal Movements and Fossil Fuels
228
1
Continent-Ocean Subduction Zones
228
2
Collisional Orogenies
230
5
CHAPTER SUMMARY
235
3
Important Terms
236
1
Review Questions
236
1
Points to Ponder
237
1
Additional Readings
237
1
World Wide Web Sites
237
1
CHAPTER 11 Geologic Time and the History of Life
238
28
PROLOGUE
239
1
INTRODUCTION
239
1
EARLY CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGIC TIME
239
2
JAMES HUTTON AND THE RECOGNITION OF GEOLOGIC TIME
241
1
RELATIVE DATING METHODS
241
2
Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating
241
1
Unconformities
242
1
CORRELATION
243
4
Perspective 11.1: Applying the Principles of Relative Dating
245
2
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
247
1
ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS
248
3
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives
249
1
Carbon 14 Dating
250
1
Quantifying the Geologic Time Scale
250
1
THE OLDEST ROCKS AND EARTH'S AGE
251
1
FOSSILS AND THE HISTORY OF LIFE
251
1
Precambrian Life
252
1
Life of the Paleozoic
252
4
Life of the Mesozoic
256
2
Life of the Cenozoic
258
2
Perspective 11.2: Fossil Rhinoceroses in Nebraska
260
2
CHAPTER SUMMARY
262
4
Important Terms
263
1
Review Questions
263
1
Points to Ponder
264
1
Additional Readings
264
1
World Wide Web Sites
265
1
CHAPTER 12 Seawater and the Sea Floor
266
24
PROLOGUE
267
1
INTRODUCTION
268
1
OCEANS AND SEAS
269
1
THE ORIGIN OF SEAWATER
270
1
COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
270
1
LIGHT PENETRATION AND THE COLOR OF SEAWATER
271
1
INVESTIGATING THE SEA FLOOR
272
1
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE OCEANIC CRUST
273
1
SEA-FLOOR TOPOGRAPHY
273
1
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
274
2
The Continental Shelf
274
1
The Continental Slope and Rise
275
1
TYPES OF CONTINENTAL MARGINS
276
1
THE DEEP-OCEAN BASIN
276
6
Abyssal Plains
277
1
Oceanic Trenches
278
1
Perspective 12.1: The Opening and Closing of Oceans
278
2
Oceanic Ridges
280
1
Fractures in the Sea Floor
280
2
Seamounts and Guyots
282
1
Perspective 12.2: Lost Continents
282
1
DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTS
282
3
REEFS
285
1
RESOURCES FROM THE SEA
286
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
287
3
Important Terms
287
1
Review Questions
288
1
Points to Ponder
288
1
Additional Readings
289
1
World Wide Web Sites
289
1
CHAPTER 13 Ocean Circulation, Shorelines, and Shoreline Processes
290
26
PROLOGUE
291
1
INTRODUCTION
292
1
WIND-DRIVEN SURFACE CURRENTS
292
1
UPWELLING AND DOWNWELLING
293
3
Perspective 13.1: The Sargasso Sea
294
2
DEEP-OCEAN CIRCULATION
296
2
SHORELINES AND SHORELINE PROCESSES
298
1
TIDES
298
2
WAVES
300
1
Wave Generation
300
1
Shallow-Water Waves and Breakers
301
1
NEARSHORE CURRENTS
301
1
SHORELINE DEPOSITION
302
4
Beaches
302
2
Spits, Baymouth Bars, and Tombolos
304
2
Barrier Islands
306
1
The Nearshore Sediment Budget
306
1
SHORELINE EROSION
306
4
Wave-Cut Platforms and Associated Landforms
307
1
Perspective 13.2: Focus on the Environment: Rising Sea Level and Coastal Management
308
2
TYPES OF COASTS
310
3
Submergent and Emergent Coasts
310
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
313
3
Important Terms
314
1
Review Questions
314
1
Points to Ponder
315
1
Additional Readings
315
1
World Wide Web Sites
315
1
CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere: Basic Properties
316
24
PROLOGUE
317
1
INTRODUCTION
318
1
ORIGINS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
318
2
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
320
2
Perspective 14.1: Focus on the Environment: Human Activity and Air Quality
321
1
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
322
5
Heat Versus Temperature
322
1
Temperature Scales and Measurement
322
2
Perspective 14.2: Temperature Extremes and Human Well-Being
324
3
Temperature Profile of the Atmosphere
327
1
TRANSPORT OF HEAT
327
2
Conduction
328
1
Convection
328
1
Radiation
329
1
HEAT TRANSFER AND SPECIFIC HEAT
329
1
AIR PRESSURE
330
4
Air Pressure Measurement and Units
330
1
Changes with Altitude
331
1
Spatial and Temporal Changes
332
2
THE IONOSPHERE AND THE AURORA
334
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
337
3
Important Terms
337
1
Review Questions
338
1
Points to Ponder
338
1
Additional Readings
339
1
World Wide Web Sites
339
1
CHAPTER 15 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation
340
24
PROLOGUE
341
1
INTRODUCTION
341
1
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
341
2
INPUT OF SOLAR RADIATION
343
2
Solar Altitude
343
1
Earth's Motions in Space
344
1
INTERACTIONS OF SOLAR RADIATION
345
6
Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
345
3
Stratospheric Ozone Shield
348
1
Solar Radiation and Earth's Surface
348
2
Perspective 15.1: Focus on the Environment: Threats to the Stratospheric Ozone Shield
350
1
INFRARED RESPONSE AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
351
3
Greenhouse Warming
351
1
Prospects for Global Warning
352
2
Perspective 15.2: Focus on the Environment: Societal Impacts of Global Warming
354
1
HEAT IMBALANCES: ATMOSPHERE VERSUS EARTH'S SURFACE
354
3
HEAT IMBALANCES: VARIATION BY LATITUDE
357
1
WEATHER: RESPONSE TO HEAT IMBALANCES
358
1
VARIATIONS IN AIR TEMPERATURE
358
2
Radiational Controls
359
1
Air Mass Controls
360
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
360
4
Important Terms
361
1
Review Questions
362
1
Points to Ponder
362
1
Additional Readings
363
1
World Wide Web Sites
363
1
CHAPTER 16 Humidity, Clouds, and Precipitation
364
26
PROLOGUE
365
1
INTRODUCTION
365
1
HUMIDITY OF AIR
366
1
Vapor Pressure
366
1
Relative Humidity
366
1
Humidity Measurement
366
1
SATURATION PROCESSES
367
2
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
369
5
Perspective 16.1: Focus on the Environment: Atmospheric Stability and Air Quality
372
2
LIFTING PROCESSES
374
2
CLOUDS
376
4
Cloud Development
377
1
Cloud Classification
377
1
Principal Cloud Types
377
3
PRECIPITATION
380
4
Bergeron Process
381
1
Forms of Precipitation
382
1
Perspective 16.2: Rainmaking
382
2
DEW, FROST, AND FOG
384
2
CHAPTER SUMMARY
386
4
Important Terms
387
1
Review Questions
387
1
Points to Ponder
388
1
Additional Readings
388
1
World Wide Web Sites
389
1
CHAPTER 17 Atmospheric Circulation
390
24
PROLOGUE
391
1
INTRODUCTION
392
1
WINDS: THE FORCES
392
3
Pressure Gradient Force
392
1
Centripetal Force
393
1
Coriolis Effect
393
1
Friction
394
1
Gravity
394
1
WINDS: COMBINING FORCES
395
1
Geostrophic Wind
395
1
Gradient Wind
395
1
Surface Winds
396
1
WEATHER OF HIGHS AND LOWS
396
2
WIND MEASUREMENT
398
1
SCALES OF WEATHER SYSTEMS
398
1
PLANETARY-SCALE CIRCULATION
399
4
Pressure Systems and Wind Belts
399
3
Seasonal Shifts
402
1
THE WEAVING WESTERLIES
403
8
Perspective 17.1: Focus on the Environment: Drought in Sub-Saharan Africa
404
4
Perspective 17.2: El Nino
408
1
Jet Stream
408
2
Upper-Air Support for Cyclones
410
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
411
3
Important Terms
412
1
Review Questions
412
1
Points to Ponder
413
1
Additional Readings
413
1
World Wide Web Sites
413
1
CHAPTER 18 Weather Systems
414
32
PROLOGUE
414
3
INTRODUCTION
417
1
AIR MASSES
417
1
FRONTS
418
2
MIDLATITUDE CYCLONES
420
2
Cyclone Weather
421
1
Cyclone Tracks
421
1
ANTICYCLONES
422
2
THUNDERSTORMS
424
6
Classification
425
1
Geographical and Temporal Distribution
426
1
Severe Weather Pattern
427
1
Thunderstorm Hazards
428
2
FORNADOES
430
4
Fornadoes and Supercell Thunderstorm
432
1
Geographical and Temporal Distribution
432
1
Fornado Hazards
432
2
HURRICANES
434
9
Geographical and Temporal Distribution
434
1
Life Cycle
435
1
Perspective 18.1: Weather Radar
436
3
Harricane Hazards
439
1
Perspective 18.2: The Hurricane Threat to the Southeastern United States
440
3
CHAPTER SUMMARY
443
3
Important Terms
444
1
Review Questions
444
1
Points to Ponder
445
1
Additional Readings
445
1
World Wide Web Sites
445
1
CHAPTER 19 The Earth-Moon System
446
32
PROLOGUE
447
1
OVERVIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
448
1
INTRODUCTION
449
1
THE MOTIONS OF EARTH
449
5
THE MOTIONS OF THE MOON AND ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
454
1
THE MOON IN EARTH'S SKY
454
6
HOW EARTH AND THE MOON AFFECT EACH OTHER
460
2
TIDES
462
3
THE MOON
465
2
IMPACT: A MAJOR GEOLOGIC PROCESS ON OTHER PLANETS
467
4
FORMATION OF THE EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
471
4
Perspective 19.1: Focus on the Environment: Impacts That Shatter Worlds
473
2
CHAPTER SUMMARY
475
3
Important Terms
475
1
Review Questions
475
1
Points to Ponder
476
1
Additional Readings
477
1
World Wide Web Sites
477
1
CHAPTER 20: The Solar System
478
30
PROLOGUE
479
1
INTRODUCTION
480
1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PLANETS
480
2
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
482
2
SILICATE AND METAL PLANETS
484
7
Perspective 20.1: What's in a Name?
485
5
Perspective 20.2: Life on Mars?
490
1
THE GAS GIANT PLANETS
491
2
THE JUPITER SYSTEM
493
1
THE SATURN SYSTEM
494
2
THE SATELLITES OF URANUS, NEPTUNE, AND PLUTO
496
2
PLANETS WITH RINGS
498
1
SMALL SOLAR SYSTEM OBJECTS
499
6
CHAPTER SUMMARY
505
3
Important Terms
505
1
Review Questions
505
1
Points to Ponder
506
1
Additional Readings
506
1
World Wide Web Sites
507
1
CHAPTER 21 Stars and Galaxies
508
29
PROLOGUE
509
1
INTRODUCTION
510
1
THE SUN
510
2
Perspective 21.1: Focus on the Environment: Seeing the Stars
511
1
DISTANCES TO THE SUN AND STARS
512
1
THE STARS AS SEEN FROM EARTH
513
3
STARLIGHT AND WHAT IT TELLS US
516
2
THE BIRTHS OF STARS
518
1
STARS WITH COMPANIONS
519
1
EVOLUTION OF STARS
520
1
THE FATES OF STARS
521
3
BEYOND THE NEAREST STARS
524
3
Perspective 21.2: Women Discoverers of the Universe
526
1
OUR GALAXY
527
1
THE NATURE OF GALAXIES
528
1
THE REALM OF THE GALAXIES
529
3
THE BIGGEST QUESTIONS OF ALL
532
1
CHAPTER SUMMARY
533
4
Important Terms
534
1
Review Questions
534
1
Points to Ponder
535
1
Additional Readings
535
1
World Wide Web Sites
536
1
Appendix A English Metric Conversion Chart
537
1
Appendix B The Periodic Table
538
2
Appendix C Geologic Time Scale
540
1
Appendix D Principal Rock Types
541
2
Appendix E Common Mineral Identification
543
5
Appendix F Topographic Maps
548
3
Appendix G Coordinates in Earth and Sky
551
4
Appendix H Earth Data
555
1
Appendix I Koppen-Geiger Climatic Classification System
556
2
Appendix J World Weather Extremes
558
2
Appendix K Star Charts
560
4
Appendix L Planetary Data
564
2
Appendix M The Brightest Stars
566
1
Appendix N The Nearest Stars
567
2
Answers to Odd-Numbered Review Questions
569
6
GLOSSARY
575
9
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
584
2
PHOTOGRAPH CREDITS
586
4
INDEX
590