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Tables of Contents for Mosquitoes and Their Control
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Introduction
1
4
I. GENERAL ASPECTS
1. Systematics
5
4
2. Biology of Mosquitoes
9
20
2.1. Oviposition
9
4
2.2. Embryonic development
13
1
2.3. Hatching
14
4
2.4. Larvae
18
3
2.5. Pupae
21
1
2.6. Adults
21
5
2.6.1. Emergence
21
1
2.6.2. Mating
22
1
2.6.3. Dispersal and host-seeking behaviour
23
2
2.6.4. Feeding
25
1
2.7. Hibernation
26
3
2.7.1. Egg stage
27
1
2.7.2. Larval stage
27
1
2.7.3. Adult stage
27
2
3. Medical Importance of Mosquitoes
29
12
3.1. Malaria
29
5
3.2. Virosis
34
4
3.2.1. Togaviridae (Alphavirus)
36
1
(a) The Sindbis virus complex
36
1
(b) Viruses of the Semliki forest complex
36
1
3.2.2. Flaviviridae (Flavivirus)
36
1
3.2.3. Bunyaviridae (Bunyavirus)
37
1
3.3. Filariasis
38
1
3.4. Conclusions
39
2
4. Mosquito Research
41
16
4.1. Sampling of mosquito eggs
41
3
4.1.1. Anopheles eggs
41
1
4.1.2. Egg rafts
41
1
4.1.3. Aedes/Ochlerotatus eggs
42
1
4.1.4. Eggs in artificial ovipositor sites
43
1
4.2. Sampling of mosquito larvae
44
1
4.3. Sampling of adult mosquitoes
45
3
4.3.1. Bait catches
45
1
4.3.2. Carbon dioxide/light trap
46
2
4.3.3. The mosquito magnetTM
48
1
4.4 Preserving mosquitoes
48
3
4.4.1. Larvae
48
1
4.4.2. Pupae
49
1
4.4.3. Adults
49
2
4.5. Rearing mosquitoes
51
1
4.6. Methods for measuring the physiological stage
52
1
4.7. Morphological studies
53
1
4.8. Cytodiagnostic methods for the identification of sibling species
53
1
4.9. Biochemical and molecular methods in studies on systematics
54
1
4.10. Ecological and behavioural studies
55
2
5. Morphology of Mosquitoes
57
30
5.1. Adults
57
15
5.1.1. Head
59
2
5.1.2. Thorax
61
7
5.1.3. Abdomen
68
4
5.2. Larvae
72
9
5.2.1. Head
74
2
5.2.2. Thorax
76
1
5.2.3. Abdomen
76
5
5.3. Pupae
81
6
II. THE IDENTIFICATION KEYS
6. Key to Female Mosquitoes
87
22
Genera
87
1
6.1. Genus Anopheles
88
4
6.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus
92
11
6.3. Genus Culex
103
2
6.4. Genus Culiseta
105
3
6.5. Genus Coquillettidia
108
1
7. Key to Male Mosquitoes
109
24
Genera
109
2
7.1. Genus Anopheles
111
3
7.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus
114
11
7.3. Genus Culex
125
4
7.4. Genus Culiseta
129
2
7.5. Genus Coquillettidia
131
2
8. Key to Mosquito Fourth-Instar Larvae
133
30
Genera
133
2
8.1. Genus Anopheles
135
4
8.2. Genera Aedes and Ochlerotatus
139
13
8.3. Genus Culex
152
5
8.4. Genus Culiseta
157
3
8.5. Genus Coquillettidia
160
3
III. MORPHOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN SPECIES 9. Subfamily Anophelinae
163
182
9.1. Genus Anopheles Meigen
164
29
9.1.1. Subgenus Anopheles Meigen
165
19
Anopheles (Anopheles) algeriensis Theobald 1903
165
2
Anopheles Claviger Complex
167
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) claviger s.s. (Meigen) 1804
167
2
Anopheles (Anopheles) petragnani Del Vecchio 1939
169
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) hyrcanus (Pallas) 1771
170
2
Anopheles Maculipennis Complex
172
3
Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus Van Thiel 1927
175
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) beklemishevi Stegnii and Kabanova 1976
176
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) labranchiae Falleroni 1926
176
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis S.S. Meigen 1818
177
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) melanoon Hackett 1934
177
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae Falleroni 1926
178
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi Favre 1903
178
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) subalpines Hackett and Lewis 1935
179
1
Anopheles (Anopheles) marten Senevet and Prunnelle 1927
180
2
Anopheles (Anopheles) plumbeus Stephens 1828
182
2
9.1.2. Subgenus Cellia Theobald
184
9
Anopheles (Cellia) cinereus Theobald 1901
184
1
Anopheles (Cellia) cinereus hispaniola (Theobald)1903
185
1
Anopheles (Cellia) multicolor Cambouliu 1902
186
2
Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii (Theobald)1907
188
2
Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus Grassi 1899
190
3
10. Subfamily Culicinae
193
152
10.1. Genus Aedes Meigen
193
21
10.1.1. Subgenus Aedes Meigen
194
7
Aedes (Aedes) cinereus Meigen 1818
195
3
Aedes (Aedes) geminas Peus 1970
198
1
Aedes (Aedes) rossicus Dolbeskin, Gorickaja and Mitrofanova 1930
199
2
10.1.2. Subgenus Aedimorphus Theobald
201
3
Aedes (Aedimorphus) vexans (Meigen)1830
201
3
10.1.3. Subgenus Fredwardsius Reinert
204
2
Aedes (Fredwardsius) vittatus (Bigot)1861
204
2
10.1.4. Subgenus Stegomyia Theobald
206
8
Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus) 1762
207
3
Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse)1895
210
2
Aedes (Stegomyia) tretinus Edwards 1921
212
2
10.2. Genus Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga
214
69
10.2.1. Subgenus Finlava Theobald
214
3
Ochlerotatus (Finlava) echinus Edwards 1920
214
2
Ochlerotatus (Finlava) geniculates (Olivier) 1791
216
1
10.2.2. Subgenus Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga
217
57
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) annulipes (Meigen)1830
219
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) behningi (Martini)1926
221
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) berlandi (Seguy) 1921
223
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cantans (Meigen) 1818
225
2
Ochlerotatus Caspius Complex
227
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) caspius (Pallas)1771
227
3
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cataphylla (Dyar)1916
230
1
Ochlerotatus Communis Complex
231
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) communis (De Geer) 1776
232
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) cyprius (Ludlow) 1920
233
2
Ochlerotatus Detritus Complex
235
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) detritus (Halfday) 1833
235
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) diantaeus (Howard, Dyar and Knab) 1913
237
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) dorsalis (Meigen)1830
239
2
Ochlerotatus Excrucians Complex
241
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) enedes (Howard, Dyar and Knab)1913
241
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) excrucians (Walker)1856
243
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) surcoufi (Theobald)1912
244
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochlerotatus) flavescens (Müller)1764
245
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) hexodontus (Dyar)1916
247
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) hungaricus (Mihalyi)1955
249
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) impiger (Walker)1848
250
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) intruders (Dyar) 1919
252
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) leucomelas (Meigen)1804
253
2
Ochlerotatus Mariae Complex
255
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) mariae (Sergent and Sergent) 1903
255
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) zammitii (Theobald)1903
257
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) mercurator (Dyar) 1920
257
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) nigrinus (Eckstein) 1918
259
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) nigripes (Zetterstedt)1838
260
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pionips (Dyar)1919
262
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pulcritarsis (Rondani)1872
264
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) pullatus (Coquillett) 1904
265
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) punctodes (Dyar)1922
267
1
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) punctor (Kirby)1837
268
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) riparius (Dyar and Knab) 1907
270
2
Ochlerotatus (Ochierotatus) sticticus (Meigen) 1838
272
2
10.2.3. Subgenus Rusticoidus Shevchenko and Prudkina
274
9
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) lepidonotus (Edwards) 1920
274
2
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) üuasirusticus (Torres Canamares)1951
276
1
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) refiki (Medschid)1928
277
2
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) rusticus (Rossi) 1790
279
2
Ochlerotatus (Rusticoidus) subdiversus (Martini) 1926
281
2
10.3. Genus Culex Linnaeus
283
27
10.3.1. Subgenus Barraudius Edwards
284
4
Culex (Barraudius) modestus Ficalbi 1889
284
2
Culex (Barraudius) pusillus Macquart 1850
286
2
10.3.2. Subgenus Culex Linnaeus
288
14
Culex (Culex) brumpti Galliard 1931
289
1
Culex (Culex) laticinctus Edwards 1913
290
2
Culex (Culex) mimeticus Noe 1899
292
2
Culex (Culex) perexiguus Theobald 1903
294
1
Culex Pipiens Complex
295
1
Culex (Culex) pipiens pipiens Linnaeus 1758
296
2
Culex pipiens pipiens biotype molestus Forskal 1775
298
1
Culex (Culex) torrentium Martini 1925
299
1
Culex (Culex) theileri Theobald 1903
300
2
10.3.3. Subgenus Maillotia Theobald
302
3
Culex (Maillotia) hortensis Ficalbi 1889
303
2
10.3.4. Subgenus Neoculex Dyar
305
5
Culex (Neoculex) impudicus Ficalbi 1890
305
2
Culex (Neoculex) martinii Medschid 1930
307
1
Culex (Neoculex) territans Walker 1856
308
2
10.4. Genus Culiseta Felt
310
22
10.4.1. Subgenus Allotheobaldia Broelemann
311
2
Culiseta (Allotheobaldia) longiareolata (Macquart)1838
311
2
10.4.2. Subgenus Culicella Felt
313
8
Culiseta (Culicella) fumipennis (Stephens)1825
313
2
Culiseta (Culicella) litorea (Shute)1928
315
2
Culiseta (Culicella) morshans (Theobald)1901
317
2
Culiseta (Culicella) ochroptera (Peus)1935
319
2
10.4.3. Subgenus Culiseta Felt
321
11
Culiseta (Culiseta) alaskaensis (Ludlow)1906
322
2
Culiseta (Culiseta) annidata (Schrank) 1776
324
2
Culiseta (Culiseta) bergrothi (Edwards) 1921
326
2
Culiseta (Culiseta) glaphyroptera (Schiner) 1864
328
2
Culiseta (Culiseta) subochrea (Edwards)1921
330
2
10.5. Genus Coquillettidia Dyar
332
4
10.5.1. Subgenus Coquillettidia Dyar
333
5
Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) buxtoni (Edwards)1923
333
1
Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia) richiardii (Ficalbi) 1889
333
3
10.6. Genus Orthopodomyia Theobald
336
2
Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis (Rondani)1872
336
2
10.7. Genus Uranotaenia Lynch Arribalzaga
338
7
10.7.1. Subgenus Pseudoficalbia Theobald
339
7
Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) unguiculate Edwards 1913
339
6
IV. CONTROL OF MOSQUITOES
11. Biological Control
345
32
11.1. Introduction
345
1
11.2. Predators
346
13
11.2.1. Vertebrate predators
346
7
11.2.1.1. Fish (Osteichthyes)
346
4
11.2.1.2. Amphibians (Amphibie)
350
1
11.2.1.3. Birds (Avec)
350
1
11.2.1.4. Bats (Mammalia)
351
2
11.2.2. Invertebrate predators
353
6
11.2.2.1. Hydras (Coelenterata)
353
1
11.2.2.2. Flatworms (Turbellaria)
354
1
11.2.2.3. Freshwater snails (Gastropoda)
354
1
11.2.2.4. Leeches (Hirudinea)
354
1
11.2.2.5. Spiders and mites (Arachnida)
355
1
11.2.2.6. Crustaceans (Crustacea)
355
1
11.2.2.7. Insects (Insecta)
355
4
11.3. Parasites
359
1
11.3.1. Nematodes
359
1
11.4. Pathogens
360
17
11.4.1. Fungi
360
2
11.4.2. Protozoa
362
1
11.4.3. Bacteria
363
11
11.4.3.1. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis
364
1
11.4.3.2. Bacillus sphaericus
365
9
11.4.4. Viruses
374
3
12. Chemical Control
377
30
12.1. History
377
2
12.2. Insecticides
379
7
12.2.1. Classification of insecticides
380
1
12.2.2. Insecticide formulations
380
4
12.2.3. Insecticide application techniques
384
2
12.3. Different chemical groups of insecticides
386
17
12.3.1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
386
1
12.3.2. Organophosphates
387
6
12.3.3. Carbamates
393
1
12.3.4. Pyrethroids
394
4
12.3.5. Insect growth regulators
398
4
12.3.6. Novel insecticide classes
402
1
12.4. Management and monitoring of insecticide resistance
403
4
12.4.1. Resistance mechanisms
403
1
12.4.2. Resistance surveillance
404
1
12.4.3. Resistance management
404
3
13. Physical Control
407
4
13.1. Sanitation
407
1
13.2. Water management
408
1
13.3. Modification of the water-air interface
408
2
13.3.1. Oíl
408
1
13.3.2. Surface films
408
2
13.3.2.1. Liparol
409
1
13.3.2.2. Monomolecular surface films (MSF)
409
1
13.3.3. Polystyrene beads
410
1
13.4. Reduction of human-mosquito contact
410
1
14. Personal Protection
411
6
14.1. Impregnated bed nets
411
1
14.2. Repellents against mosquitoes
412
5
14.2.1. Repellents on skin or clothing
412
2
14.2.2. Mosquito coils
414
1
14.2.3. Vapourising mats
414
1
14.2.4. Liquid vapouriser
415
2
15. Integrated Pest Management
417
8
15.1. Mosquito management research
417
1
15.2. Socio-economic aspects of mosquito control
418
1
15.3. Action thresholds as a component of integrated mosquito management
419
1
15.4. Information dissemination
420
1
15.5. IPM techniques
421
1
15.6. Insecticide registration and usage
421
4
16. Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures into Routine Treatments
425
28
16.1. Prerequisites for the successful implementation of the programme
427
5
16.1.1. Entomological studies
427
1
16.1.2. Mapping of the breeding sites
428
1
16.1.3. Selection of appropriate tools
429
1
16.1.4. Effective dosage assessment
429
1
16.1.5. Design of the control strategy
430
1
16.1.6. Training of field staff
431
1
16.1.7. Governmental application requirements
431
1
16.1.8. Public information systems
431
1
16.1.9. Community participation
431
1
16.2. Routine treatments
432
21
16.2.1. Mosquito control in Croatia
432
1
16.2.2. Mosquito control in Czech and Slovak Republics
433
1
16.2.3. Mosquito control in France
434
1
16.2.4. Mosquito control in Germany
434
4
16.2.5. Mosquito control in Greece
438
1
16.2.6. Mosquito control in Hungary
439
1
16.2.7. Mosquito control in Italy
440
2
16.2.8. Mosquito control in Poland
442
1
16.2.9. Mosquito control in Spain
443
2
16.2.10. Mosquito control in Sweden
445
1
16.2.11. Mosquito control in Switzerland
446
3
16.2.12. Mosquito control in Yugoslavia
449
4
References
453
34
Subject Index
487
6
Taxonomic Index
493