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Tables of Contents for Research Methods
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
PREFACE
xvii
PART ONE UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH
1
32
CHAPTER 1 THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT RESEARCH
3
30
Objectives
1
1
Overview
1
4
What Is Science and the Scientific Method?
5
1
What Are the Purposes of Science?
6
2
Description
6
1
Prediction
6
1
Improvement
7
1
Explanation
8
1
What Is a Scientific Theory?
8
3
Good Versus Bad Scientific Theories
10
1
Testability of a Theory
10
1
What Are the Types of Scientific Logic?
11
3
Inductive Logic
11
1
Deductive Logic
12
1
Combination of Logic Forms
13
1
In What Ways Do We Gain Information?
14
3
Tenacity
14
1
Intuition
15
1
Authority
15
1
Empiricism
16
1
Rationalism
16
1
What Are Constraint Levels in Educational and Psychological Research?
17
5
Experimental Research
18
2
Causal-Comparative Research
20
1
Correlational Research
20
1
Case Study Research
20
1
Naturalistic or Descriptive Research
21
1
What Are the Differences between Basic and Applied Research?
22
1
Basic Research
22
1
Applied Research
22
1
What Is Replication Research?
23
6
Reasons for Replications
23
4
Types of Replications
27
2
Replication as the "Big Picture"
29
1
Summary
29
1
Discussion Questions
29
4
PART TWO CRITICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
33
58
CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES FOR INTERPRETING RESEARCH
35
28
Objectives
35
1
Overview
35
1
What Is Variability?
36
2
Sources of Variability
36
2
What Is Internal Validity?
38
8
Maturation
38
2
Selection
40
1
Selection by Maturation Interaction
41
1
Statistical Regression
41
1
Mortality
42
1
Instrumentation
43
1
Testing
43
1
History
44
1
Resentful Demoralization of the Control Group
44
1
Diffusion of Treatment
45
1
Compensatory Rivalry by the Control Group
45
1
Compensatory Equalization of Treatments
46
1
What Is External Validity?
46
10
Population Validity
47
2
Ecological Validity
49
7
What Are Statistical and Social Validities?
56
2
Statistical Validity
56
1
Social Validity
57
1
Summary
58
1
Discussion Questions
59
1
Interpretation Exercises
59
4
CHAPTER 3 RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, AND INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT
63
28
Objectives
63
1
Overview
63
2
What Are Reliability and Validity Issues in Quantitative Research?
65
1
How Do Researchers Assess the Reliability of Measurement Devices?
66
7
Types of Reliability Coefficients
66
5
Standard Error of Measurement
71
2
How Do Researchers Determine the Validity of Measurement Devices?
73
4
Types of Validity
74
3
What Are Reliability and Validity Issues in Qualitative Research?
77
2
Reliability Issues
78
1
Validity Issues
78
1
Illustrative Example of Reliability and Validity Procedures
78
1
What Is Interobserver Agreement?
79
1
What Are the Methods of Establishing Interobserver Agreement?
80
5
Measures of Permanent Products
81
1
Event Recording
82
1
Latency and Duration Recording
82
1
Interval Recording
83
2
What Are the Factors that Influence Interobserver Agreement?
85
1
Reactivity
85
1
Observer Drift
85
1
Complexity of the Measurement System
86
1
Observer Expectations
86
1
What Are the Factors to Consider when Assessing Measurement Devices in the Context of a Study?
86
1
Description of the Measurement Device
86
1
Adjustments to the Measurement Device
86
1
Appropriateness of the Measurement Device
87
1
Cooperation of Participants
87
1
Summary
87
1
Discussion Questions
88
1
Practice Exercises
89
2
PART THREE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
91
162
CHAPTER 4 BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES
93
37
Objectives
93
1
Overview
93
1
What Are the Scales of Measurement?
94
1
Nominal Scale
94
1
Ordinal Scale
94
1
Interval Scale
94
1
Ratio Scale
95
1
What Is a Univariate Frequency Distribution?
95
1
How Can We Describe Data Sets?
95
3
Measures of Central Tendency
95
1
Measures of Variation
96
1
Shape of the Distribution
97
1
What Role Do Hypotheses Play in Research?
98
4
Inferential Statistics
98
1
Role of Hypotheses
99
1
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
99
1
Directional and Nondirectional Alternative Hypotheses
100
2
What Are Parametric and Nonparametric Tests of Statistical Significance?
102
1
Parametric Tests
102
1
Nonparametric Tests
102
1
What Is Statistical Significance?
102
3
Errors Made in Interpretations of the Significance Level
104
1
What Are Type I and Type II Errors and Power?
105
6
Type I Errors
105
1
Type II Errors
106
1
Relative Seriousness of Type I or Type II Errors
107
1
Power
108
1
Five Methods of Increasing Power
108
3
What Are the Types of Statistical Significance Testing Methods?
111
8
Parametric Tests of Statistical Significance
111
5
Nonparametric Tests of Statistical Significance
116
3
What Are the Different Sampling Methods?
119
6
Probability Sampling
120
4
Nonprobability Sampling
124
1
What Are the Sampling Decisions Researchers Make?
125
1
What Is Sampling Error?
126
1
Summary
127
1
Discussion Questions
128
2
CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
130
44
Objectives
130
1
Overview
130
2
What Are True Experimental Designs?
132
1
What Are the Most Common True Experimental Designs?
133
8
Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
133
3
Posttest-Only Control-Group Design
136
2
Solomon Four-Group Design
138
3
What Are Factorial Experimental Designs?
141
3
Analysis of Data
141
3
What Are Quasi-Experimental Designs?
144
1
What Are the Common Quasi-Experimental Designs?
144
9
Static-Group Comparison
144
2
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs
146
3
Counterbalanced Designs
149
2
Time-Series Designs
151
2
What Are Preexperimental Designs?
153
1
What Are the Types of Preexperimental Designs?
153
3
One-Shot Case Study
153
2
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
155
1
When Should Researchers Use Each Experimental Research Design?
156
1
Discussion Questions
157
1
Sample Article: "The Effects of Learning Strategy Instruction on the Completion of Job Applications by Students with Learning Disabilities"
158
16
J. Ron Nelson
Deborah J. Smith
John M. Dodd
CHAPTER 6 CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
174
26
Objectives
174
1
Overview
174
1
What Is the Causal-Comparative Research Method?
175
1
What Should Researchers Consider when Designing a Causal-Comparative Study?
176
6
Development of Hypotheses
176
1
Selection of Groups
176
1
Analysis of Data
177
3
Research Examples
180
2
When Should Researchers Use the Causal-Comparative Research Design?
182
1
Discussion Questions
182
1
Sample Article: "The Current and Future Outcomes of Interpersonal Social Interactions: The Views of Students with Behavioral Disorders"
183
17
J. Ron Nelson
Marcy Drummond
Ron Martella
Nancy Marchand-Martella
CHAPTER 7 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
200
53
Objectives
200
1
Overview
200
1
What Is the Correlational Research Method?
201
1
What Are the Issues in Designing a Correlational Study?
201
29
Types of Variables in Correlational Research
201
1
Critical Issues in Correlational Research
202
1
Analysis of Data
203
24
Research Examples
227
3
When Should Researchers Use the Correlational Research Method?
230
1
Discussion Questions
231
1
Sample Article: "Peer Victimization: Cause or Consequence of School Maladjustment?"
232
21
Becky J. Kochenderfer
Gary W. Ladd
PART FOUR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
253
72
CHAPTER 8 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: METHODS
255
26
Objectives
255
1
Overview
255
2
What Are the Characteristics of Qualitative Research?
257
1
What Are the Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research?
258
7
Source of Data
258
5
Nature of Data
263
1
Process of Change
264
1
Type of Reasoning
264
1
Focus of Research
265
1
What Are Qualitative Research Procedures?
265
5
Phases
265
2
Sampling
267
3
What Is Understanding in Qualitative Research?
270
3
Descriptive Validity
270
1
Interpretive Validity
271
1
Theoretical Validity
271
1
Generalizability
272
1
Evaluative Validity
273
1
What Are the Evaluative Criteria for Judging the Reliability and Validity of Qualitative Research?
273
4
Criterion 1: Completeness of Information
274
1
Criterion 2: Adequacy of Interpretation
274
1
Criterion 3: Determination of Inconsistencies in Data
274
1
Criterion 4: Adequacy of Metaphors, Pictures, or Diagrams
274
1
Criterion 5: Collaboration with Participants
274
1
Criterion 6: Multiple Methods to Gather Data
274
2
Criterion 7: Disqualification of Interpretations
276
1
What Are the Types of Triangulation Methods?
277
2
Data Sources Triangulation
277
1
Analyst Triangulation
277
1
Theory/Perspective Triangulation
278
1
Methods Triangulation
278
1
Summary
279
1
Discussion Questions
279
2
CHAPTER 9 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: DATA COLLECTION AND DESIGNS
281
44
Objectives
281
1
Overview
281
1
What Are Field-Oriented Studies?
282
18
Case Study
282
1
Observation Studies
282
3
Participant Observation Study
285
1
Nonparticipant Observation Study
286
1
Natualistic Observation Study
287
1
Simulations
287
1
Interview Studies
288
3
Ethnography
291
2
Document Analysis
293
1
Analysis of Data
294
4
Research Examples
298
2
When Should Researchers Use Each Qualitative Research Design?
300
1
Discussion Questions
301
1
Sample Article: "Successful Mainstreaming in Elementary Science Classes: A Qualitative Study of Three Reputational Cases"
302
23
Thomas E. Scruggs
Margo A. Mastropieri
PART FIVE SINGLE-CASE RESEARCH METHODS
325
122
CHAPTER 10 WITHDRAWAL AND ASSOCIATED DESIGNS
327
36
Objectives
327
1
Overview
327
3
What Are Graphing Methods in Withdrawal Designs?
330
1
What Are Withdrawal and Associated Designs?
331
16
A-B Design
331
2
Withdrawal Design
333
1
A-B-A-B Design
334
1
B-A-B Design
334
1
A-B-C-B Design
335
2
Analysis of Data
337
3
Research Examples
340
7
When Should Researchers Use Each Withdrawal and Associated Design?
347
3
Discussion Questions
350
1
Sample Article: "Reducing Negative Comments through Self-Monitoring and Contingency Contracting"
351
12
Pamela S. Courson-Krause
Nancy Marchand-Martella
Ronald C. Martella
Brenda Schmitt
CHAPTER 11 MULTIPLE-BASELINE DESIGNS
363
42
Objectives
363
1
Overview
363
1
What Are Graphing Methods in Multiple-Baseline Designs?
364
1
What Are Multiple-Baseline Designs?
364
21
Multiple-Baseline Design across Behaviors
366
1
Multiple-Baseline Design across Participants
366
1
Multiple-Baseline Design across Settings
366
1
Multiple-Probe Design
367
2
Analysis of Data
369
10
Research Examples
379
6
When Should Researchers Use Each Multiple-Baseline Design?
385
2
Discussion Questions
387
1
Sample Article: "Generalized Effects of a Peer-Delivered First Aid Program for Students with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities"
388
17
Nancy E. Marchand-Martella
Ronald C. Martella
Martin Agran
Charles L. Salzberg
K. Richard Young
Daniel Morgan
CHAPTER 12 ADDITIONAL SINGLE-CASE DESIGNS
405
42
Objectives
405
1
Overview
405
1
What Is a Changing-Criterion Design?
405
8
Analysis of Data
407
5
Research Example
412
1
What Is a Multitreatment Design?
413
5
Analysis of Data
416
2
Research Example
418
1
What Is an Alternating Treatments Design?
418
6
Analysis of Data
422
1
Research Example
423
1
What Are Combination Designs?
424
4
Analysis of Data
428
1
Research Example
428
1
When Should Researchers Use Each of the Additional Single-Case Designs?
428
2
Discussion Questions
430
1
Sample Article: "Problem Solving to Prevent Work Injuries in Supported Employment"
431
16
Ronald C. Martella
Martin Agran
Nancy E. Marchand-Martella
PART SIX ADDITIONAL RESEARCH METHODS
447
76
CHAPTER 13 SURVEY, HISTORICAL, AND PROGRAM EVALUATION RESEARCH METHODS
449
40
SURVEY RESEARCH
449
11
Objectives
449
1
Overview
449
1
What Are the Purposes of Survey Research?
450
1
Description
450
1
Explanation
450
1
Exploration
451
1
What Are the Different Types of Surveys?
451
1
What Are the Factors in Choosing a Survey Method?
451
1
Sampling Procedures
451
1
Sampling Population
451
1
Question Format
452
1
Content of Questions
453
1
Response Rate
453
1
Time and Money
453
1
How Is Survey Research Designed?
453
1
Sampling
453
3
Developing the Survey Instrument
456
2
Analysis of Data
458
1
Research Example
459
1
When Should Researchers Use Survey Research?
459
1
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
460
9
Objectives
460
1
Overview
460
1
What Are the Characteristics and Purposes of Historical Research?
461
1
Characteristics
461
1
Purposes
461
1
How Is Historical Research Designed?
462
1
Research Question or Hypothesis
462
1
Data Collection
463
1
Analysis of Data
464
4
Research Example
468
1
When Should Researchers Use Historical Research?
469
1
PROGRAM EVALUATION
469
8
Objectives
469
1
Overview
469
1
What Are the Goal and Objectives of Program Evaluation?
470
1
Goal
470
1
Objectives
470
1
What Are the Types of Program Evaluations?
471
1
Needs Assessments
472
1
Process Evaluations
473
1
Outcome Evaluations
474
1
Efficiency Evaluations
474
1
How Is a Program Evaluation Conducted?
475
1
Establishing Boundaries
475
1
Selecting Evaluation Methods
475
1
Collecting and Analyzing Data
476
1
Reporting of Findings
476
1
Analysis of Data
476
1
Evaluation Example
476
1
When Should Program Evaluations Be Conducted?
477
1
Discussion Questions
477
1
Sample Article: "Faculty Willingness to Accommodate Students with Learning Disabilities: A Comparison among Academic Divisions"
478
11
J. Ron Nelson
John M. Dodd
Deborah J. Smith
CHAPTER 14 CONDUCTING RESEARCH SYNTHESES
489
34
Objectives
489
1
Overview
489
1
What Are the Purposes of Research Syntheses?
490
1
Establishing Cause-and-Effect Relationships
490
1
Determining the Degree of Relationship between Two Variables
490
1
Developing Theories
490
1
Assessing the External Validity of Findings
491
1
What Are Systematic and Unsystematic Research Syntheses?
491
2
Unsystematic Research Syntheses
491
1
Systematic Research Syntheses
491
1
Comparison of Unsystematic and Systematic Research Syntheses
492
1
What Are the Considerations for Conducting Research Syntheses?
493
1
Identifying Primary Sources
493
1
Identifying Secondary Sources
493
1
Overcoming Selection Biases
494
1
Focusing the Literature Search
494
1
How Do Researchers Plan and Execute Research Syntheses?
494
21
Formulating a Precise Research Question
494
1
Defining Critical Terms
495
2
Formulating a Literature Search Framework
497
1
Searching the Literature
497
3
Coding Study Characteristics
500
2
Determining the Magnitude of Intervention Outcomes
502
6
Relating Study Characteristics to Intervention Outcomes
508
4
Reporting the Results
512
1
Analysis of Data
513
2
When Should Researchers Conduct Research Syntheses?
515
1
Discussion Questions
515
1
Sample Article: "The Moral Reasoning of Juvenile Delinquents: A Meta-Analysis"
516
7
J. Ron Nelson
Deborah J. Smith
John Dodd
PART SEVEN ACTION RESEARCH
523
30
CHAPTER 15 ACTION RESEARCH: MOVING FROM CRITICAL RESEARCH CONSUMER TO RESEARCHER
525
28
Objectives
525
1
Overview
525
1
What Is Action Research?
526
1
Dimensions of Action Research
527
1
What Are the Characteristics of Action Research?
527
1
Purposes and Value Choice
527
1
Contextual Focus
527
1
Change-Based Data and Sense Making
528
1
Participation in the Research Process
528
1
Knowledge Diffusion
528
1
How Are Quantitative Methods Used in Action Research?
528
1
Research Example
529
1
How Are Qualitative Methods Used in Action Research?
529
2
Research Example
530
1
How Are Single-Case Methods Used in Action Research?
531
1
Research Example
531
1
How Are Survey, Historical, and Program Evaluation Methods Used in Action Research?
531
1
Survey Research
532
1
Historical Research
532
1
Program Evaluation
532
1
What Are the Ethical Principles and Codes of Conduct for Research?
532
6
American Educational Research Association
533
1
American Psychological Association
533
5
Ethical Conduct of Action Researchers
538
1
How Does One Write a Research Article?
538
4
Contents
538
3
A Cautionary Note
541
1
How Are Articles Submitted for Publication?
542
1
When Should One Conduct Action Research?
542
1
Discussion Questions
543
1
Sample Article: "Dyads and Data in Peer Coaching"
544
9
Cynthia O. Vail
Jennifer M. Tschantz
Alicia Bevill
GLOSSARY
553
12
REFERENCES
565
10
INDEX
575