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Tables of Contents for Mechanical Assemblies
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xix
What is Assembly and Why is it Important?
Introduction
1
1
Some Examples
2
7
Stapler Tutorial
2
4
Assembly Implements a Business Strategy
6
2
Many Parts from Many Suppliers Must Work Together
8
1
Some Examples of Poor Assembly Design
9
1
Assembly in the Context of Product Development
9
2
Assembling a Product
11
1
History and Present Status of Assembly
12
4
History
12
1
Manual and Automatic Assembly
13
1
Robotic Assembly
14
1
Robotics as a Driver
15
1
Current Status and Challenges in Assembly
16
1
Assemblies Are Systems
16
1
Chapter Summary
17
1
Problems and Thought Questions
17
1
Further Reading
18
1
Assembly Requirements and Key Characteristics
Prolog
19
1
Product Requirements and Top-Down Design
19
1
The Chain of Delivery of Quality
20
1
Key Characteristics
21
1
Variation Risk Management
22
4
Key Characteristics Flowdown
23
2
Ideal KC Process
25
1
Examples
26
3
Optical Disk Drive
26
1
Car Doors
27
2
Key Characteristics Conflict
29
2
Chapter Summary
31
1
Problems and Thought Questions
32
1
Further Reading
32
2
Mathematical and Feature Models of Assemblies
Introduction
34
1
Types of Assemblies
34
2
Distributive Systems
34
1
Mechanisms and Structures
35
1
Types of Assembly Models
36
1
Matrix Transformations
36
6
Motivation and Example
36
1
Nominal Location Transforms
37
5
Variation Transforms
42
1
Assembly Features and Feature-Based Design
42
3
History
43
1
Fabrication Features
43
1
Assembly Features
44
1
The Disappearing Fabrication Feature
44
1
Mathematical Models of Assemblies
45
8
World Coordinate Models
45
1
Surface-Constrained Models
46
1
Connective Models
46
1
Building a Connective Model of an Assembly by Placing Feature Frames on Parts and Joining Parts Using Features
47
4
A Simple Data Model for Assemblies
51
2
Example Assembly Models
53
4
Seeker Head
53
2
Juicer
55
2
Chapter Summary
57
1
Problems and Thought Questions
57
3
Further Reading
60
2
Constraint in Assembly
Introduction
62
1
The Stapler
63
1
Kinematic Design
63
13
Principles of Statics
63
2
Degrees of Freedom
65
1
How Kinematics Addresses Constraint
66
2
Kinematic Assemblies
68
1
Constraint Mistakes
68
3
``Good'' Overconstrained Assemblies
71
2
Location, Constraint, and Stability
73
1
One-Sided and Two-Sided Constraints---Also Known as Force Closure and Form Closure
73
2
Force-Motion Ambiguity
75
1
Summary of Constraint Situations
75
1
Features as Carriers of Constraint
76
1
Use of Screw Theory to Represent and Analyze Constraint
77
9
History
77
1
Screw Theory Representations of Assembly Features
78
8
Design and Analysis of Assembly Features Using Screw Theory
86
16
Motion and Constraint Analysis
86
1
Basic Surface Contacts and Their Twist Matrices
87
2
Construction of Engineering Features and Their Twist Matrices
89
5
Use of Screw Theory to Describe Multiple Assembly Features That Join Two Parts
94
3
Graphical Technique for Conducting Twist Matrix Analyses
97
1
Graphical Technique for Conducting Constraint Analyses
98
3
Why Are the Motion and Constraint Analyses Different?
101
1
Advanced Constraint Analysis Technique
102
1
Comment
102
1
Chapter Summary
102
1
Problems and Thought Questions
103
3
Further Reading
106
1
Appendix: Feature Toolkit
107
5
Nomenclature for the Toolkit Features
107
1
Toolkit Features
107
5
Dimensioning and Tolerancing Parts and Assemblies
Introduction
112
1
History of Dimensional Accuracy in Manufacturing
113
3
The Rise of Accuracy and Interchangeability
113
1
Recent History of Parts Accuracy and Dimensioning and Tolerancing Practices
114
2
Remarks
116
1
KCs and Tolerance Flowdown from Assemblies to Parts: An Example
116
2
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
118
5
Dimensions on Drawings
118
1
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
118
5
Statistical and Worst-Case Tolerancing
123
13
Repeatable and Random Errors, Goalposting, and the Loss Function
124
1
Worst-Case Tolerancing
125
1
Statistical Process Control
126
4
Statistical Tolerancing
130
3
Summary of SPC and Statistical Tolerancing
133
1
Why Do Mean Shifts and Goalposting Occur?
133
1
Including Mean Shifts in Statistical Tolerancing
134
1
What If the Distribution Is Not Normal?
135
1
Remarks
136
1
Chapter Summary
136
1
Problems and Thought Questions
137
1
Further Reading
138
1
Appendix: Central Limit Theorem
138
1
Appendix: Basic Properties of Distributions of Random Variables
139
2
Mean of a Sum
139
1
Variance of a Sum
139
1
Average of a Sum
140
1
Variance of the Average of a Sum
140
1
Modeling and Managing Variation Buildup in Assemblies
Introduction
141
1
Nominal and Varied Models of Assemblies Represented by Chains of Frames
142
5
Calculation of Connective Assembly Model Variation Using Single Features
142
1
Calculation of Connective Assembly Model Variation Using Compound Features
143
4
Representation of GD&T Part Specifications as 4 x 4 Transforms
147
5
Representation of Individual Tolerance Zones as 4 x 4 Transforms
147
1
Worst-Case Representation of 4x4 Transform Errors
148
1
Statistical Representation of 4 x 4 Transform Errors
149
3
Remark: Constraint Inside a Part
152
1
Examples
152
10
Addition of Error Transforms to Nominal Transforms
152
1
Assembly Process Capability
152
3
Variation Buildup with Fixtures
155
2
Car Doors
157
5
Tolerance Allocation
162
3
Tolerance Allocation to Minimize Fabrication Costs
162
1
Tolerance Allocation to Achieve a Given Cpk at the Assembly Level and at the Fabrication Level
163
2
Variation Buildup in Sheet Metal Assemblies
165
3
Stress-Strain Considerations
165
2
Assembly Sequence Considerations
167
1
Adjustment Considerations
167
1
Variation Reduction Strategies
168
3
Selective Assembly
168
1
Functional Build and Build to Print
169
2
Chapter Summary
171
2
Problems and Thought Questions
173
3
Further Reading
176
1
Appendix: MATLAB Routines for Obeying and Approximating Rule #1
177
3
Assembly Sequence Analysis
Introduction
180
1
History of Assembly Sequence Analysis
181
2
The Assembly Sequence Design Process
183
7
Summary of the Method
183
1
Methods for Finding Feasible Sequences
184
2
Methods of Finding Good Sequences from the Feasible Sequences
186
1
An Engineering-Based Process for Assembly Sequence Design
186
4
The Bourjault Method of Generating All Feasible Sequences
190
2
First Question: R(1;2,3,4)
191
1
Second Question: R(2;1,3,4)
191
1
Third Question: R(3;1,2,4)
191
1
Fourth Question: R(4;1,2,3)
191
1
Reconciliation of the Answers
192
1
Precedence Question Results
192
1
The Cutset Method
192
1
Checking the Stability of Subassemblies
193
1
Software for Deriving Assembly Sequences
194
1
Draper Laboratory/MIT Liaison Sequence Method
194
1
Sandia Laboratory Archimedes System
194
1
Examples
195
10
Automobile Alternator
195
2
Pump Impeller System
197
2
Consumer Product Example
199
2
Industrial Assembly Sequence Example
201
4
Chapter Summary
205
1
Problems and Thought Questions
205
1
Further Reading
206
1
Appendix: Statement of the Rules of the Bourjault Method
207
1
Appendix: Statistics on Number of Feasible Assembly Sequences a Product Can Have and Its Relation to Liaisons Per Part for Several Products
208
3
The Datum Flow Chain
Introduction
211
2
History and Related Work
213
1
Summary of the Method for Designing Assemblies
213
2
Definition of a DFC
215
2
The DFC Is a Graph of Constraint Relationships
215
1
Nominal Design and Variation Design
216
1
Assumptions for the DFC Method
216
1
The Role of Assembly Features in a DFC
216
1
Mates and Contacts
217
4
Examples of DFCs
217
2
Formal Definition of Mate and Contact
219
1
Discussion
219
2
Type 1 and Type 2 Assemblies Example
221
3
KC Conflict and Its Relation to Assembly Sequence and KC Priorities
224
2
Example Type 1 Assemblies
226
9
Fan Motor
226
1
Automobile Transmission
227
4
Cuisinart
231
1
Pump Impeller
232
2
Throttle Body
234
1
Example Type 2 Assemblies
235
8
Car Doors
235
1
Ford and GM Door Methods
236
4
Aircraft Final Body Join
240
3
Summary of Assembly Situations That Are Addressed by the DFC Method
243
1
Conventional Assembly Fitup Analysis
243
1
Assembly Capability Analysis
243
1
Assemblies Involving Fixtures or Adjustments
244
1
Selective Assembly
244
1
Assembly Precedence Constraints
244
1
DFCs, Tolerances, and Constraint
245
1
A Design Procedure for Assemblies
245
2
Nominal Design Phase
245
2
Variation Design Phase
247
1
Summary of Kinematic Assembly
247
1
Chapter Summary
248
1
Problems and Thought Questions
248
2
Further Reading
250
1
Appendix: Generating Assembly Sequence Constraints That Obey the Contact Rule and the Constraint Rule
251
2
Assembly Gross and Fine Motions
Prolog
253
1
Kinds of Assembly Motions
253
2
Gross Motions
253
1
Fine Motions
253
1
Gross and Fine Motions Compared
254
1
Force Feedback in Fine Motions
255
6
The Role of Force in Assembly Motions
255
1
Modeling Fine Motions, Applied Forces, and Moments
255
1
The Accommodation Force Feedback Algorithm
256
2
Mason's Compliant Motion Algorithm
258
1
Bandwidth of Fine Motions
259
1
The Remote Center Compliance
260
1
Chapter Summary
261
1
Problems and Thought Questions
261
1
Further Reading
261
1
Appendix
262
1
Assembly of Compliantly Supported Rigid Parts
Introduction
263
1
Types of Rigid Parts and Mating Conditions
263
1
Part Mating Theory for Round Parts with Clearance and Chamfers
264
12
Conditions for Successful Assembly
265
1
A Model for Compliant Support of Mating Parts
266
3
Kinematic Description of Part Motions During Assembly
269
1
Wedging and Jamming
270
4
Typical Insertion Force Histories
274
1
Comment on Chamfers
275
1
Chamferless Assembly
276
2
Screw Thread Mating
278
2
Gear Mating
280
2
Chapter Summary
282
1
Problems and Thought Questions
282
3
Further Reading
285
1
Appendix: Derivation of Part Mating Equations
285
8
Chamfer Crossing
285
1
One-Point Contact
286
1
Two-Point Contact
286
1
Insertion Forces
287
1
Computer Program
288
5
Assembly of Compliant Parts
Introduction
293
3
Motivation
293
2
Example: Electrical Connectors
295
1
Design Criteria and Considerations
296
3
Design Considerations
296
1
Assumptions
297
1
General Force Considerations
297
2
Rigid Peg/Compliant Hole Case
299
5
General Force Analysis
299
5
Design of Chamfers
304
7
Introduction
304
1
Basic Model for Insertion Force
304
2
Solutions to Chamfer Design Problems
306
5
Correlation of Experimental and Theoretical Results
311
1
Chapter Summary
312
1
Problems and Thought Questions
313
1
Further Reading
314
1
Appendix: Derivation of Some Insertion Force Patterns
314
2
Radius Nose Rigid Peg, Radius Nose Compliant Wall
314
1
Straight Taper Rigid Peg, Cantilever Spring Hole
315
1
Appendix: Derivation of Minimum Insertion Work Chamfer Shape
316
1
Assembly in the Large: the Impact of Assembly on Product Development
Introduction
317
1
Concurrent Engineering
317
2
Product Design and Development Decisions Related to Assembly
319
2
Concept Generation
320
1
Architecture and KC Flowdown
320
1
Platform Strategy, Technology Plan, Supplier Strategy, and Reuse
321
1
Steps in Assembly in the Large
321
4
Business Context
321
2
Manufacturing Context
323
1
Assembly Process Requirements
323
1
Product Design Improvements
324
1
Summary
324
1
Chapter Summary
325
1
Problems and Thought Questions
325
1
Further Reading
326
1
How to Analyze Existing Products in Detail
How to Take a Product Apart and Figure Out How It Works
327
1
How to Identify the Assembly Issues in a Product
328
3
Understand Each Part
329
1
Understand Each Assembly Step
329
1
Identify High-Risk Areas
330
1
Identify Necessary Experiments
330
1
Recommend Local Design Improvements
331
1
Examples
331
8
Electric Drill
331
4
Child's Toy
335
3
Statistics Gathered from a Canon Camera
338
1
Example Mystery Features
338
1
Chapter Summary
339
1
Problems and Thought Questions
339
1
Further Reading
340
1
Product Architecture
Introduction
341
1
Definition and Role of Architecture in Product Development
341
13
Definition of Product Architecture
341
1
Where Do Architectures Come From?
342
3
Architecture's Interaction with Development Processes and Organizational Structures
345
1
Attributes of Architectures
345
9
Interaction of Architecture Decisions and Assembly in the Large
354
9
Management of Variety and Change
354
6
The DFC as an Architecture for Function Delivery in Assemblies
360
2
Data Management
362
1
Examples
363
12
Sony Walkman
363
1
Fabrication- and Assembly-Driven Manufacturing at Denso---How Product and Assembly Process Design Influence How a Company Serves Its Customers
364
1
Airbus A380 and Boeing Sonic Cruiser
365
1
Airbus A380 Wing
366
1
Office Copiers
367
1
Unibody, Body-on-Frame, and Motor-on-Wheel Cars
368
1
Black and Decker Power Tools
369
1
Car Air-Fuel Intake Systems
370
1
Internal Combustion Engines
370
1
Car Cockpit Module
371
1
Power Line Splice
371
4
Chapter Summary
375
1
Problems and Thought Questions
375
1
Further Reading
376
3
Design for Assembly and Other ``Ilities''
Introduction
379
1
History
380
3
DFM/DFA as Local Engineering Methods
380
1
DFM/DFA as Product Development Integrators
381
1
DFA as a Driver of Product Architecture
382
1
The Effect on DFM/DFA Strategies of Time and Cost Distributions in Manufacturing
382
1
General Approach to DFM/DFA
383
2
Traditional DFM/DFA (DFx in the Small)
385
7
The Boothroyd Method
385
3
The Hitachi Assembleability Evaluation Method
388
1
The Hitachi Assembly Reliability Method (AREM)
389
2
The Westinghouse DFA Calculator
391
1
The Toyota Ergonomic Evaluation Method
391
1
Sony DFA Methods
391
1
DFx in the Large
392
15
Product Structure
392
9
Use of Assembly Efficiency to Predict Assembly Reliability
401
2
Design for Disassembly Including Repair and Recycling (DfDRR)
403
3
Other Global Issues
406
1
Example DFA Analysis
407
8
Part Symmetry Classification
407
1
Gross Motions
408
1
Fine Motions
409
1
Gripping Features
409
1
Classification of Fasteners
409
1
Chamfers and Lead-ins
409
1
Fixture and Mating Features to Fixture
409
2
Assembly Aids in Fixture
411
1
Auxiliary Operations
411
1
Assembly Choreography
411
2
Assembly Time Estimation
413
1
Assembly Time Comparison
413
1
Assembly Efficiency Analysis
413
1
Design Improvements for the Staple Gun Design for Assembly
413
1
Lower-Cost Staple Gun
414
1
DFx's Place in Product Design
415
1
Chapter Summary
416
1
Problems and Thought Questions
417
1
Further Reading
417
3
Assembly System Design
Introduction
420
1
Basic Factors in System Design
420
5
Capacity Planning---Available Time and Required Number of Units/Year
421
1
Assembly Resource Choice
422
1
Assignment of Operations to Resources
423
1
Floor Layout
423
1
Workstation Design
424
1
Material Handling and Work Transport
424
1
Part Feeding and Presentation
424
1
Quality: Assurance, Mistake Prevention, and Detection
424
1
Economic Analysis
424
1
Documentation and Information Flow
425
1
Personnel Training and Participation
425
1
Intangibles
425
1
Available System Design Methods
425
1
Average Capacity Equations
426
2
Three Generic Resource Alternatives
428
3
Characteristics of Manual Assembly
428
1
Characteristics of Fixed Automation
429
2
Characteristics of Flexible Automation
431
1
Assembly System Architectures
431
4
Single Serial Line (Car or Airplane Final Assembly)
432
1
Team Assembly
432
1
Fishbone Serial Line with Subassembly Feeder Lines
432
1
Loop Architecture
433
1
U-Shaped Cell (Often Used with People)
434
1
Cellular Assembly Line
434
1
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
435
5
Approaches to Quality
435
1
Elements of a Testing Strategy
436
1
Effect of Assembly Faults on Assembly Cost and Assembly System Capacity
436
4
Buffers
440
3
Motivation
440
1
Theory
441
1
Heuristic Buffer Design Technique
442
1
Reality Check
442
1
The Toyota Production System
443
4
From Taylor to Ford to Ohno
443
1
Elements of the System
443
2
Layout of Toyota Georgetown Plant
445
1
Volvo's 21-Day Car
445
2
Discrete Event Simulation
447
2
Heuristic Manual Design Technique for Assembly Systems
449
5
Choose Basic Assembly Technology
449
1
Choose an Assembly Sequence
449
1
Make a Process Flowchart
449
1
Make a Process Gantt Chart
449
2
Determine the Cycle Time
451
1
Assign Chunks of Operations to Resources
451
1
Arrange Workstations for Flow and Parts Replenishment
451
1
Simulate System, Improve Design
452
1
Perform Economic Analysis and Compare Alternatives
452
2
Analytical Design Technique
454
4
Theory and Limitations
454
1
Software
454
1
Example
455
2
Extensions
457
1
Example Lines from Industry: Sony
458
1
Example Lines from Industry: Denso
458
3
Denso Panel Meter Machine (~1975)
458
1
Denso Alternator Line (~1986)
458
1
Denso Variable Capacity Line (~1996)
459
1
Denso Roving Robot Line for Starters (~1998)
460
1
Comment on Denso
460
1
Example Lines from Industry: Aircraft
461
2
Chapter Summary
463
1
Problems and Thought Questions
463
1
Further Reading
464
1
Assembly Workstation Design Issues
Introduction
465
1
Assembly Equals Reduction in Location Uncertainty
465
1
What Happens in an Assembly Workstation
466
1
Major Issues in Assembly Workstation Design
467
2
Get Done Within the Allowed Cycle, Which Is Usually Short
467
1
Meet All the Assembly Requirements
468
1
Avoid the Six Common Mistakes
468
1
Workstation Layout
469
1
Some Important Decisions
470
6
Choice of Assembly ``Resource''
470
1
Part Presentation
470
6
Other Important Decisions
476
1
Allocation of Degrees of Freedom
476
1
Combinations of Fabrication and Part Arrangement with Assembly
476
1
Assembly Station Error Analysis
476
1
Design Methods
477
4
Simulation Software and Other Computer Aids
477
1
Algorithmic Approach
478
3
Examples
481
7
Sony Phenix 10 Assembly Station
481
2
Window Fan
483
1
Staple Gun
483
1
Making Stacks
484
1
Igniter
484
4
Chapter Summary
488
1
Problems and Thought Questions
488
1
Further Reading
488
1
Economic Analysis of Assembly Systems
Introduction
489
1
Kinds of Cost
489
4
Fixed Cost
489
1
Variable Cost
490
1
Materials Cost
490
1
Administrative Cost
490
1
Direct Cost
490
1
Indirect Cost
490
1
Distribution of Costs in the Supply Chain
490
2
Cash Flows
492
1
Summary
493
1
The Time Value of Money
493
1
Interest Rate, Risk, and Cost of Capital
493
1
Combining Fixed and Variable Costs
494
1
Cost Models of Different Assembly Resources
495
4
Unit Cost Model for Manual Assembly
495
1
Unit Cost Model for Fixed Automation
495
1
Unit Cost Model for Flexible Automation
496
1
Remarks
497
2
How SelectEquip Calculates Assembly Cost
499
1
Is Labor Really a Variable Cost?
499
1
Comparing Different Investment Alternatives
499
5
Discounting to Present Value
500
1
Payback Period Method
501
1
Internal Rate of Return Method
501
1
Net Present Value Method
501
1
Example IRoR Calculation
501
1
Example Net Present Value Calculation
501
3
Remarks
504
1
Chapter Summary
504
1
Problems and Thought Questions
505
1
Further Reading
505
2
Index
507