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Tables of Contents for An Introduction to Language
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Part 1 The Nature of Human Language
What is Language
3
30
Linguistic Knowledge
4
8
Knowledge of the Sound System
4
1
Knowledge of Words
5
1
Arbitrary Relation of form and Meaning
5
3
The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge
8
3
Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences
11
1
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance
12
2
What Is Grammar?
14
4
Descriptive Grammars
14
1
Prescriptive Grammars
15
2
Teaching Grammars
17
1
Language Universals
18
5
The Development of Grammar
19
1
Sign Languages: Evidence for Languages Universals
20
1
American Sign Language (ASL)
21
2
Animal ``languages''
23
4
``Talking'' Parrots
23
1
The Birds and the Bees
24
3
What We Know about Language
27
1
Summary
28
1
References for Further Reading
29
1
Exercises
30
3
Brain and language
33
36
The Human Brain
34
14
The Modularity of the Brain
34
5
Evidence from Childhood Brain Lesions
39
1
Split Brains
40
1
Further Experiments
41
2
More Evidence for Modularity
43
1
Aphasia
43
5
Distinct Categories of Conceptual Knowledge
48
1
The Autonomy of Language
48
3
Asymmetry of Abilities
49
1
Laura
49
1
Christopher
50
1
Genetic Evidence for Language Autonomy
50
1
Language and Brain Development
51
5
The Critical Period
51
3
A Critical Period for Bird Songs
54
2
The Evolution of Language
56
5
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language
56
1
God's Gift to Mankind?
57
1
The First Language
58
1
Human Invention or the Cries of Nature?
59
1
The development of Language in the spices
59
2
Summary
61
1
References for Further Reading
62
1
Exercises
63
6
Part 2 Grammatical Aspects of Language
Morophology: The Word of Language
69
48
Dictionaries
72
1
Content Words and Function Words
73
2
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning
75
7
Bound and Free Morphemes
77
1
Prefixes and Suffixes
77
2
Infixes
79
1
Circumfixes
80
1
Roots and Stems
80
1
Huckles and Ceives
81
1
Rules of Word Formation
82
9
Derivational Morphology
83
1
The Hierarchical Structure of Words
84
2
More about Derivational Morphemes
86
1
Lexical Gaps
87
1
Rule Productivity
88
2
``Pullet Surprises''
90
1
Sign Language Morphology
91
1
Word Coinage
92
7
Compounds
93
1
Meaning of Compounds
94
1
Universality of Compounding
95
1
Acronyms
95
2
Back-Formations
97
1
Abbreviations
97
1
Words from Names
98
1
Blends
98
1
Grammatical Morphemes
99
6
Inflectional Morphemes
100
2
Exceptions and Suppletions
102
1
Morphology and Syntax
103
2
Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes
105
1
Summary
106
2
References for Further Reading
108
1
Exercises
108
9
The Sentence Patterns of Language
117
56
Grammatical or Ungrammatical?
118
3
What Grammaticality Is Based On
119
1
What Grammaticality Is Not Based On
120
1
What Else Do You Know about Syntax?
121
2
Sentence Structure
123
14
Syntactic Categories
125
3
Phrase Structure Trees
128
2
Heads and Complements
130
1
Selection
131
2
What Heads the Sentence?
133
2
The Infinity of Language
135
2
Phrase Structure Rules
137
15
Growing Trees: The Relationship between Phrase Structure Rules and Phrase Structure Trees
140
3
Structural Ambiguities
143
1
Trees That Won't Grow
144
2
More Phrase Structure Rules
146
6
Sentence Relatedness
152
12
Transformational Rules
153
1
Structure Dependent Rules
154
2
Syntactic Dependencies
156
1
Wh Questions
157
2
UG Principles and Parameters
159
3
Sign Language Syntax
162
2
Summary
164
1
References for Further Reading
165
1
Exercises
165
8
The Meanings of language
173
58
Lexical Semantic (Word Meanings)
173
14
Semantic Properties
174
2
Evidence for Semantic Properties
176
1
Semantic Properties and the Lexicon
176
1
More Semantic Relationships
177
1
-nyms
178
1
Homonyms and Polysemy
179
2
Synonyms
181
1
Antonyms
182
1
Formation of Antonyms
183
1
Hyponyms
184
1
Metonyms
184
1
Retronyms
185
1
Proper Names
185
2
Phrase and Sentence Meaning
187
14
Phrasal Meaning
188
1
Noun-Centered Meaning
189
1
Sense and Reference
190
1
Verb-Centered Meaning
191
1
Thematic Roles
192
2
Thematic Roles in Other Languages
194
1
The Theta-Criterion
195
1
Sentential Meaning
195
1
The ``Truth'' of Sentences
196
1
Paraphrase
197
1
Entailment
198
1
Contradiction
198
1
Events versus States
199
1
Pronouns and Coreferentiality
199
2
To Mean or Not to Mean
201
6
Anomaly: No Sense and Nonsense
201
3
Metaphor
204
1
Idioms
205
2
Pragmatics
207
12
Linguistic Context: Discourse
208
1
Pronouns
209
2
The Articles The and A
211
1
Situational Context
212
1
Maxims of Conversation
213
1
Speech Acts
114
102
Presuppositions
216
1
Deixis
217
2
Summary
219
2
References for Further Reading
221
1
Exercises
222
9
Phonetics: The Sounds of Language
231
42
Sound Segments
232
3
Identity of Speech Sounds
233
2
Spelling and Speech
235
5
The Phonetic Alphabet
236
4
Articulatory Phonetics
240
22
Airstream Mechanisms
240
2
Consonants
242
1
Places of Articulation
242
1
Bilabials [p] [b] [m]
242
1
Labiodentals [f] [v]
242
1
Interdentals (θ] [d]
242
1
Alveolars [t) (d) (n] [s] (z] (1] [r]
242
1
Palatals [f]/[S] [3]/[Z] [C] [J]
243
1
Velars [k] [g] (g]
243
1
Uvulars [R] [q) [G]
243
1
Glottal [?] [h]
243
1
Manners of Articulation
244
1
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
244
2
Nasal and Oral Sounds
246
1
Stops [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [n] [c] [j][?]
247
1
Fricatives (f] [v] [θ] [d] [s] [z] [s] [z]
248
1
Affricates [c] [j]
248
1
Liquids [1] [r]
249
1
Glides (j] [w]
250
1
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants
250
2
Vowels
252
1
Tongue Position
252
2
Lip Rounding
254
1
Diphthongs
255
1
Nasalization of Vowels
255
1
Tense and Lax Vowels
255
1
Dialed Differences
256
1
Major Classes
257
1
Noncontinuants and Continuants
257
1
Obstruents and Sonorants
257
1
Consonants and Vowels
257
1
Labials [p] [b] [m] [f] [v]
258
1
Coronals [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [s] [z] [c] [J] [1]
258
1
Anterior [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [θ] [d] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z]
258
1
Sibilants [s] [z] [s] [z] [c] [j]
258
1
Syllabic Sounds
258
1
Prosodic Suprasegmental Features
258
1
Tone and Intonation
259
3
Diacritics
262
1
Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences
262
3
Sign-Language Primes
265
2
Summary
267
1
References for Further Reading
268
1
Exercises
268
5
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
273
68
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
275
8
The Pronunciation of Plurals
275
4
Exceptions to the Plural Rule
279
1
Allomorphy in English: Further Examples
280
1
Allomorphy in Other languages
281
2
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language
283
8
Vowel Nasalization in English
283
4
Minimal Pairs in ASL
287
1
Complementary Distribution
287
4
Distinctive Features
291
6
Feature Values
291
1
Predictability of Redundant (Nondistinctive) Features
292
2
More on Redundancies
294
1
Unpredictability of Phonemic Features
295
2
Natural Classes
297
4
Feature Specifications for American English Consonants and Vowels
299
2
The Rules of Phonology
301
16
Assimilation Rules
301
4
Feature Changing Rules
305
1
Dissimilation Rules
306
1
Feature Addition Rules
307
1
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules
307
4
Movement (Metathesis) Rules
311
1
From One to Many and from Many to One
312
3
The Function of Phonological Rules
315
1
Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules
316
1
Prosodic Phonology
317
5
Syllable Structure
317
1
Word Stress
318
2
Sentence and Phrase Stress
320
1
Intonation
321
1
Sequential Constraints
322
2
Lexical Gaps
324
1
Phonological Analysis: Discovering Phonemes
324
3
Summary
327
2
References for Further Reading
329
1
Exercises
329
12
Part 3 The Psychology of Language
Language Acquisition
341
56
Mechanisms of Language Acquisition
342
5
Do Children Learn through Imitation?
343
1
Do Children learn through Reinforcement?
344
1
Do Children Learn Language through Analogy?
345
1
Do Children Learn through Structured Input?
346
1
Children Construct Grammars
347
27
The Innateness Hypothesis
348
3
Stages in Language Acquisition
351
1
The Perception and Production of Speech Sounds
352
2
First Words
354
2
The Development of Grammar
356
1
The Acquisition of Phonology
356
2
The Acquisition of Word Meaning
358
2
The Acquisition of Morphology
360
3
The Acquisition of Syntax
363
4
The Acquisition of Pragmatics
367
1
The Development of Auxiliaries: A Case Study
368
3
Setting Parameters
371
1
The Acquisition of Signed Languages
372
2
Knowing More Than One language
374
10
Childhood Bilingualism
374
2
Theories of Bilingual Development
376
1
Two Monolinguals in One Head
377
1
The Role of Input
377
1
Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism
378
1
Second Language Acquisition
379
1
Is L2 Acquisition the Same as L1 acquisition?
379
2
Native Language Influence in L1 Acquisition
381
1
The Creative Component of L2 Acquisition
382
1
A Critical Period for L1 Acquisition?
383
1
Second-Language Teaching Methods
384
1
Can Chimps learn Human Language?
384
6
Gua
385
1
Viki
385
1
Washoe
385
1
Sarah
386
1
Learning Yerkish
386
1
Koko
386
1
Nim Chimpsky
386
2
Clever Hans
388
1
Kanzi
389
1
Summary
390
2
References for Further Reading
392
1
Exercises
393
4
Language Processing: Human and Computer
397
48
The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing
397
15
Comprehension
399
1
The Speech Signal
399
2
Speech Perception and Comprehension
401
2
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies
403
1
Lexical Access and Word Recognition
404
2
Syntactic Processing
406
2
Speech Production
408
1
Planning Units
408
2
Lexical Selection
410
1
Application and Misapplication of Rules
410
1
Nonlinguistic Influences
411
1
Computer Processing of Human Language
412
21
Text and Speech Analysis
412
1
Frequency Analysis, Concordances, and Collocations
413
1
Information Retrieval and Summarization
414
1
Spell Checkers
415
1
Machine Translation
416
2
Computers That Talk and Listen
418
1
Computational Phonetics and Phonology
418
1
Speech Recognition
418
2
Speech Synthesis
420
3
Computational Morphology
423
1
Computational Syntax
424
5
Computational Semantics
429
1
Computational Pragmatics
430
2
Computer Models of Grammar
432
1
Summary
433
3
Reference for Further Reading
436
1
Exercises
437
8
Part 4 Language and Society
Language in Society
445
54
Dialects
445
3
Regional Dialects
446
1
Accents
447
1
Dialects of English
448
6
Phonological Differences
449
1
Lexical Differences
450
1
Dialed Atlases
451
2
Syntactic Differences
453
1
The ``Standard''
454
5
Language Purists
455
2
Banned Languages
457
2
The Revival of Languages
459
1
African American English
459
6
Phonology of African American English
460
1
R-Deletion
460
1
L-Deletion
460
1
Consonant Cluster Simplification
460
1
Neutralization of [I] and [ε] before Nasals
461
1
Diphthong Reduction
461
1
Loss of Interdental fricatives
461
1
Syntactic Differences between AAE and SAE
461
1
Double Negatives
462
1
Deletion of the Verb ``Be''
462
1
Habitual ``Be''
462
2
History of African American English
463
2
Latino (Hispanic) English
465
3
Chicano English (ChE)
466
1
Phonological Variables of ChE
466
1
Syntactic Variables in ChE
467
1
Lingua Francas
468
1
Pidgins and Creoles
469
3
Pidgins
469
3
Creoles
472
1
Styles, Slang, and Jargon
472
4
Styles
472
1
Slang
473
2
Jargon and Argot
475
1
Taboo or Not Taboo?
476
6
Euphemisms
479
2
Racial and National Epithets
481
1
Language, Sex, and Gender
482
5
Marked and Unmarked Forms
483
2
The Generic ``He''
485
1
Language and Gender
486
1
Secret languages and Language Games
487
1
Summary
488
2
References for Further Reading
490
1
Exercises
491
8
Language Change: The Syllables of Time
499
46
The Regularity of Sound Change
501
2
Sound Correspondences
501
1
Ancestral Protolanguages
502
1
Phonological Change
503
3
Phonological Rules
503
1
The Great Vowel Shift
504
2
Morphological Change
506
2
Syntactic Change
508
2
Lexical Change
510
6
Addition of New Words
511
1
Borrowings or Loan Words
512
1
History through Loan Words
512
2
Loss of Words
514
1
Semantic Change
515
1
Broadening
515
1
Narrowing
516
1
Meaning Shifts
516
1
Reconstructing ``Dead'' Languages
516
8
The Nineteenth-Century Comparativists
517
1
Cognates
518
2
Comparative Reconstruction
520
2
Historical Evidence
522
2
Extinct and Endangered Languages
524
2
The Genetic Classification of languages
526
5
Languages of the World
528
3
Types of Languages
531
3
Why Do languages Change?
534
2
Summary
536
1
References for Further Reading
537
1
Exercises
538
7
Writing: The ABCs of Language
545
28
The History of Writing
546
6
Pictograms and Ideograms
547
1
Cuneiform Writing
548
2
The Rebus Principle
550
1
From Hieroglyphs to the Alphabet
551
1
Modern Writing Systems
552
7
Word Writing
553
1
Syllabic Writing
554
2
Consonantal Alphabet Writing
556
1
Alphabetic Writing
556
3
Reading, Writing, and Speech
559
8
Reading
561
1
Spelling
562
4
Spelling Pronunciations
566
1
Summary
567
1
References for Further Reading
567
1
Exercises
568
5
Glossary
573
26
Index
599