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Tables of Contents for Asking the Right Questions
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xi
The Benefit of Asking the Right Questions
1
14
Introduction
1
1
Critical Thinking to the Rescue
2
1
The Sponge and Panning for Gold: Alternative Thinking Styles
3
2
An Example of the Panning-for-Gold Approach
5
2
Panning for Gold: Asking Critical Questions
7
1
The Myth of the ``Right Answer''
7
1
Thinking and Feeling
8
1
The Efficiency of Asking the Question, ``Who Cares?''
9
1
Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking
10
1
The Satisfaction of Using the Panning-for-Gold Approach
11
1
Trying Out New Answers
11
1
Effective Communication and Critical Thinking
12
1
The Importance of Practice
12
1
The Right Questions
13
2
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion?
15
10
Kinds of Issues
16
1
Searching for the Issue
17
1
Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion
18
1
Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion
19
2
Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking
21
1
Practice Exercises
22
3
What Are the Reasons?
25
12
Reasons + Conclusion = Argument
26
1
Initiating the Questioning Process
27
2
Words That Identify Reasons
29
1
Kinds of Reasons
29
2
Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight
31
2
Reasons First, Then Conclusions
33
1
``Fresh'' Reasons and Your Growth
33
1
Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking
34
1
Practice Exercises
34
3
What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?
37
16
The Confusing Flexibility of Words
38
1
Locating Key Terms and Phrases
39
1
Checking for Ambiguity
40
1
Determining Ambiguity
41
2
Context and Ambiguity
43
2
Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary
45
2
Ambiguity and Loaded Language
47
1
Limits of Your Responsibility to Clarify Ambiguity
48
1
Ambiguity and Your Own Writing and Speaking
48
1
Summary
49
1
Practice Exercises
50
3
What Are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions?
53
18
General Guide for Identifying Assumptions
55
1
Value Conflicts and Assumptions
55
1
Discovering Values
56
2
From Values to Value Assumptions
58
1
Typical Value Conflicts
59
2
The Communicator's Background as a Clue to Value Assumptions
61
1
Consequences as Clues to Value Assumptions
61
1
More Hints for Finding Value Assumptions
62
1
Avoiding a Typical Difficulty When Identifying Value Assumptions
63
1
Finding Value Assumptions on Your Own
64
3
Values and Relativism
67
1
Summary
67
1
Practice Exercises
67
4
What Are the Descriptive Assumptions?
71
12
Illustrating Descriptive Assumptions
72
2
Clues for Locating Assumptions
74
3
Applying the Clues
77
1
Avoiding Analysis of Trivial Assumptions
78
1
Assumptions and Your Own Writing and Speaking
79
1
Summary
79
1
Practice Exercises
80
3
Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?
83
20
A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies
85
1
Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point
85
3
Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies
88
6
Looking for Diversions
94
2
Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question
96
1
Summary of Reasoning Errors
97
1
Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies
98
1
Fallacies and Your Own Writing and Speaking
99
1
Practice Exercises
99
4
How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience, Testimonials, and Appeals to Authority?
103
14
The Need for Evidence
104
1
Locating Factual Claims
105
1
Sources of Evidence
106
1
Intuition as Evidence
107
1
Dangers of Appealing to Personal Experience as Evidence
108
1
Personal Testimonials as Evidence
109
1
Appeals to Authority as Evidence
110
3
Summary
113
1
Practice Exercises
114
3
How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation, Research Studies, Case Examples, and Analogies?
117
20
Personal Observation
117
1
Research Studies as Evidence
118
5
Generalizing from the Research Sample
123
1
Biased Surveys and Questionnaires
124
3
Critical Evaluation of a Research-Based Argument
127
1
Case Examples as Evidence
128
1
Analogies as Evidence
129
4
Summary
133
1
Practice Exercises
133
4
Are There Rival Causes?
137
18
When to Look for Rival Causes
138
1
The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes
139
3
Detecting Rival Causes
142
1
The Cause or A Cause
142
1
Rival Causes and Scientific Research
143
2
Rival Causes for Differences Between Groups
145
1
Confusing Causation with Association
146
2
Strong Support for a Cause
148
1
Confusing ``After this'' with ``Because of this''
148
2
Explaining Individual Events or Acts
150
1
Evaluating Rival Causes
151
1
Evidence and Your Own Writing and Speaking
152
1
Summary
152
1
Practice Exercises
152
3
Are the Statistics Deceptive?
155
10
Unknowable and Biased Statistics
156
1
Confusing Averages
156
2
Concluding One Thing, Proving Another
158
1
Deceiving by Omitting Information
159
1
Risk Statistics and Omitted Information
160
1
Summary
161
1
Practice Exercises
162
3
What Significant Information Is Omitted?
165
14
The Benefits of Detecting Omitted Information
166
1
The Certainty of Incomplete Reasoning
166
1
Questions That Identify Omitted Information
167
5
The Importance of the Negative View
172
1
Omitted Information That Remains Missing
173
1
Missing Information and Your Own Writing and Speaking
174
1
Practice Exercises
174
5
What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible?
179
12
Assumptions and Multiple Conclusions
180
1
Dichotomous Thinking: Impediment to Considering Multiple Conclusions
180
1
Two Sides or Many?
181
2
Searching for Multiple Conclusions
183
1
Productivity of If-Clauses
184
1
Alternative Solutions as Conclusions
185
1
The Liberating Effect of Recognizing Alternative Conclusions
186
1
Summary
186
1
Practice Exercises
187
4
Practice and Review
191
12
Question Checklist for Critical Thinking
191
1
Asking the Right Questions: A Comprehensive Example
192
2
What Are the Issue and Conclusion?
194
1
What Are the Reasons?
194
1
What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?
195
1
What Are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions?
196
1
What Are the Descriptive Assumptions?
196
1
Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?
197
1
How Good Is the Evidence?
198
1
Are There Rival Causes?
199
1
Are the Statistics Deceptive?
199
1
What Significant Information Is Omitted?
200
1
What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible?
201
2
Final Word
203
2
The Tone of Your Critical Thinking
203
1
Strategies for Effective Critical Thinking
204
1
Index
205