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Tables of Contents for Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Figures
xiii
Tables
xvii
Authors and Contributors
xix
Foreword
xxi
Robert S. Hoffmann
Preface
xxv
Origin of Publication
xxv
Authorship
xxvi
Acknowledgments
xxvi
Introduction
1
8
Don E. Wilson
James D. Nichols
Rasanayagam Rudran
Colin Southwell
Background
1
1
Biodiversity at Regional and Landscape Levels
2
1
Biodiversity at Ecosystem, Community, and Population Levels
3
1
Concepts of Biodiversity at the Community Level
4
1
Previous Work
5
1
Purpose of This Volume
5
1
Intended Audience
6
1
Organization
6
3
Mammalian Diversity and Natural History
9
32
F. Russell Cole
Don E. Wilson
Introduction
9
1
Geographic Considerations
10
3
Distributions and Zoogeographic Relationships of Mammals
13
2
Natural History of Mammals
15
22
Order Monotremata
15
1
Order Didelphimorphia
15
8
Order Paucituberculata
23
1
Order Microbiotheria
23
1
Order Dasyuromorphia
23
1
Order Peramelemorphia
24
1
Order Notoryctemorphia
24
1
Order Diprotodontia
25
1
Order Xenarthra
26
1
Order Insectivora
26
1
Order Scandentia
27
1
Order Dermoptera
27
1
Order Chiroptera
27
1
Order Primates
28
1
Order Carnivora
29
1
Order Cetacea
30
1
Order Sirenia
31
1
Order Proboscidea
31
1
Order Perissodactyla
31
1
Order Hyracoidea
32
1
Order Tubulidentata
32
1
Order Artiodactyla
32
1
Order Pholidota
33
1
Order Rodentia
33
3
Order Lagomorpha
36
1
Order Macroscelidea
37
1
Information Needs
37
1
Conservation Status
37
4
Designing a Study to Assess Mammalian Diversity
41
10
Michael J. Conroy
James D. Nichols
Introduction
41
1
Statistical Concepts
42
1
Designing a Sample Survey
42
3
Target and Sampled Populations
42
1
Selection of Sampling Units
43
1
Determining Sample Size
43
1
Stratification
44
1
Interpreting Animal Count Statistics
45
4
Observability
45
1
Sampling Variability
45
1
Use of Count Statistics in Estimation
45
1
Use of Count Statistics in Comparative Studies
46
2
Standardization
48
1
Developing a Species List
48
1
Conclusions
49
2
Keys to a Successful Project: Associated Data and Planning
51
20
Introduction
51
1
Climate and Environment
52
4
Martha L. Crump
Basic Weather Data
52
1
Additional Environmental Data
53
1
Measuring Weather Variables
54
1
Weather Conditions and Study Design
55
1
Data Standards
56
4
Roy W. McDiarmid
Don E. Wilson
Geographic Characterization
57
1
Habitat
57
3
Sampling Methodology
60
1
Microhabitat Description
60
3
Robert F. Inger
Don E. Wilson
Characteristics of a Microhabitat Checklist
61
1
Basic Descriptors for a Microhabitat Checklist
61
1
Field Methods
62
1
Voucher Specimens
63
5
Robert P. Reynolds
Ronald I. Crombie
Roy W. McDiarmid
Terry L. Yates
Field Identification
63
1
Sample Size
64
2
Specimen Data
66
1
Selection of a Specimen Repository
66
2
Permits
68
3
Roy W. McDiarmid
Robert P. Reynolds
Ronald I. Crombie
Conducting a Survey to Assess Mammalian Diversity
71
10
Rasanayagam Rudran
Mercedes S. Foster
Introduction
71
1
Objectives
72
1
Defining the Scope of a Survey
72
1
Species Lists
72
1
Selecting Target Species
72
1
Choosing Field Techniques
73
2
Appropriateness
73
1
Physical Characteristics and Behavior of Species
73
1
Size of the Survey Area
74
1
Habitat and Climate
74
1
Personnel and Time
74
1
Budget and Equipment
74
1
Integrating Theory and Practice
75
4
Use of Maps
75
1
Measuring the Size of a Sample Unit
75
1
Choosing a Random Sample
76
1
Choosing Random Points
77
1
Minimizing Error
77
2
Conclusions
79
2
Observational Techniques for Nonvolant Mammals
81
24
Rasanayagam Rudran
Thomas H. Kunz
Colin Southwell
Peter Jarman
Andrew P. Smith
Introduction
81
2
Density and Relative Abundance
82
1
Total Counts and Sample Counts
82
1
Drives and Silent Detection Methods
82
1
Drives
83
3
Drives for Total Counts
83
1
Drives for Sample Counts
84
2
Silent Detection for Total Counts
86
3
Individual Identification
86
1
Observation of Emergence from Dens and Burrows
87
1
Total Counts From Mobile Platforms
88
1
Silent Detection for Sample Counts
89
8
Line Transects
89
4
Strip Transects
93
1
Nonlinear Frequency-Density Plot
94
1
Road Counts
95
1
Quadrat Sampling
95
2
Special Techniques
97
8
Aerial Surveys
97
5
Marine Mammal Surveys
102
1
Call Playbacks
103
1
Night Surveys
103
2
Observational Techniques for Bats
105
10
Thomas H. Kunz
Donald W. Thomas
Gregory C. Richards
Christopher R. Tidemann
Elizabeth D. Pierson
Paul A. Racey
Introduction
105
1
Roosting Bats
106
5
Direct Roost Counts
106
1
Disturbance Counts at Roosts
107
1
Nightly Dispersal Counts
107
1
Roost Counts at Maternity Colonies
108
1
Nightly Emergence Counts
109
1
Counts of Foliage- and Cavity-Roosting Bats
110
1
Counts of Hibernating Bats
110
1
Flying Bats
111
4
Counts with Motion Detectors
111
1
Ultrasonic Bat Detection
111
4
Capturing Mammals
115
42
Clyde Jones
William J. McShea
Michael J. Conroy
Thomas H. Kunz
Introduction
115
1
Small Terrestrial Mammals
116
6
Capture Devices
116
2
Bait
118
2
Trap Arrays
120
2
Time Interval
122
1
Handling
122
1
Small Volant Mammals
122
24
Thomas H. Kunz
Christopher R. Tidemann
Gregory C. Richards
Capturing Bats in Roosts
123
2
Capturing Flying Bats
125
18
Preparation for Field Study
143
1
Handling Bats
143
1
Holding Devices for Bats
144
1
Examining Bats and Keeping Records
145
1
Medium-Size Terrestrial Carnivores
146
2
Capture Devices
146
1
Bait
146
1
Trap Arrays
147
1
Time Interval
147
1
Handling
147
1
Other Capture Methods
147
1
Medium-Size Terrestrial Herbivores
148
2
Capture Devices
148
1
Bait
149
1
Trap Arrays
149
1
Time Interval
149
1
Handling
150
1
Other Capture Methods
150
1
Other Medium-Size Mammals
150
1
Scansorial Species
150
1
Arboreal Species
151
1
Semifossorial and Semiaquatic Species
151
1
Large Terrestrial Mammals
151
3
Capture Devices
151
1
Bait
152
1
Trap Arrays
152
1
Time Interval
152
1
Handling
153
1
Other Capture Methods
153
1
Fossorial Mammals
154
1
Capture Devices
154
1
Trap Use
154
1
Unusual Mammals
155
2
Mammalian Sign
157
20
Christen Wemmer
Thomas H. Kunz
Geoffrey Lundie-Jenkins
William J. McShea
Introduction
157
1
Visually Detected Sign
158
7
Structures and Habitat Features
158
1
Tracks
158
5
Stored Food and Food Remains
163
1
Scats
163
2
Olfactory Sign
165
1
Remote-Trip Cameras
165
6
Camera Equipment
167
2
Trigger Mechanisms
169
1
Video Cameras
170
1
Camera Placement
170
1
Sampling
170
1
Target Organisms and Habitats
171
2
Research Design
173
2
Standing Crop Method
173
1
Accumulation of Sign Methods
174
1
Sign-Marking Methods
174
1
Size, Shape, and Placement of Samples
174
1
Field Methods
175
1
Data Handling, Analysis, and Interpretation
175
1
Data Handling
175
1
Analysis and Interpretation
175
1
Special Considerations
176
1
Personnel and Materials
176
1
Techniques for Estimating Abundance and Species Richness
177
58
Estimation of Mammal Abundance
177
49
Introduction
177
2
James D. Nichols
Michael J. Conroy
Abundance Indices
179
13
Michael J. Conroy
Complete Counts
192
1
Peter Jarman
Andrew P. Smith
Colin Southwell
Estimation of Population Size and Density When Counts Are Incomplete
193
17
Colin Southwell
Removal Methods
210
7
Richard A. Lancia
John W. Bishir
Capture-Recapture Methods
217
9
James D. Nichols
Chris R. Dickman
Recommendations
226
1
Michael J. Conroy
James D. Nichols
Estimation of Species Richness
226
9
James D. Nichols
Michael J. Conroy
Indices of Species Richness
228
1
Quadrant-Based Sampling
229
2
Multiple Sampling Occasions
231
1
Empirical Species-Abundance Distributions
232
1
Field Application
233
2
The Geographic Information System for Storage and Analysis of Biodiversity Data
235
12
Peter August
Carol Baker
Charles LaBash
Christopher Smith
Introduction
235
1
Spatial Data
236
3
Representing Map Data in Analog and Digital Formats
236
2
Attributes: What the Spatial Data Represent
238
1
Special Properties of Spatial Data: Cartography 101
238
1
System Design
239
1
Developing a Database
239
3
Keyboard Entry of Coordinates
239
1
Digitizing
239
1
Scanning
240
1
Global Positioning Systems
241
1
Radiotelemetry
241
1
Existing Digital Data
241
1
Data Handling
242
1
Data Analysis
242
3
Overlay Procedures
242
2
Generalization
244
1
Neighbor or Proximity Analysis
244
1
Analyses of Connectance
244
1
Modeling and Spatial Mathematics
244
1
Terrain Analysis
244
1
Special Considerations
245
1
Purchasing a System
245
1
Conclusions
246
1
Conclusions and Recommendations
247
4
Data Maintenance
248
1
What Next?
248
3
Appendix 1: Ethics in Research
251
4
Rasanayagam Rudran
Thomas H. Kunz
Introduction
251
1
Legal and Cultural Considerations
252
1
Regulations and Permits
252
1
Religious and Cultural Concerns
252
1
Trapping Animals
252
1
Sample Size
252
1
Kill-Trapping and Shooting
253
1
Live-Trapping and Netting
253
1
Use of Capture Guns
253
1
Processing and Handling Animals
253
2
General Considerations
253
1
Marking Animals
254
1
Collecting Tissue and Fluid
254
1
Holding, Transporting, and Releasing Animals
254
1
Appendix 2: Human Health Concerns
255
10
Thomas H. Kunz
Rasanayagam Rudran
Gregory Gurri-Glass
Introduction
255
1
General Precautions
255
1
Immunizations
256
1
Disease Risks
257
1
Common Diseases
257
2
Malaria
257
1
Diseases from Contaminated Water or Food
258
1
Skin Diseases
259
1
Diseases Involving Wild Mammals
259
3
Rabies
259
1
Arboviral Fevers
260
1
Hantavirus
260
1
Leishmaniasis
261
1
Histoplasmosis
262
1
Lyme Disease
262
1
Other Health Hazards
262
2
Hazards in Caves and Mines
262
1
Climatic Hazards
263
1
Venomous Animals
264
1
Conclusions
264
1
Appendix 3: Preservation of Voucher Specimens
265
10
Terry L. Yates
Clyde Jones
Joseph A. Cook
Introduction
265
1
Types of Specimen Preparations
265
1
Methods of Specimen Preparation
266
9
Record Keeping
266
1
Processing Procedures
266
4
Skin and Skeleton Preparation
270
2
Fluid-Preserved Specimens
272
1
Skeletons as Vouchers
273
2
Appendix 4: Tissues, Cell Suspensions, and Chromosomes
275
4
Terry L. Yates
Introduction
275
1
Chromosomes and Cell Suspensions
275
2
Frozen Tissues
277
2
Appendix 5: Sex, Age, and Reproductive Condition of Mammals
279
12
Thomas H. Kunz
Christen Wemmer
Virginia Hayssen
Introduction
279
1
Sex Determination
279
3
Genitalia
280
1
Body Size, Pelage, and Ornamentation
281
1
Scent Glands
282
1
Behavior
282
1
Age Estimation
282
5
Body Mass and Size
283
1
Tooth Characteristics
284
1
Cementum and Dentine Deposits
285
1
Periosteal Growth Lines
286
1
Epiphyseal Closure
286
1
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
286
1
Mass of the Lens in the Eye
286
1
Pelage or Color
287
1
Tail Collagen
287
1
Reproductive Condition
287
4
Males
287
1
Females
288
2
Hormone Assays
290
1
Appendix 6: Field Parasitology Techniques for Use with Mammals
291
8
Scott Lyell Gardner
Introduction
291
1
Procedures for Collecting Ectoparasites and Ectosymbionts
292
1
Procedures for Collecting Endoparasites and Endosymbionts
293
4
Recording Data
297
1
Materials
297
2
Equipment
297
1
Expendable Supplies and Reagents
298
1
Appendix 7: Methods for Marking Mammals
299
12
General Marking Techniques
299
5
Rasanayagam Rudran
Permanent Markers
299
2
Semipermanent Markers
301
2
Temporary Markers
303
1
Problems Related to Marking
303
1
Methods of Marking Bats
304
7
Thomas H. Kunz
Wing Bands
304
2
Thumb Bands
306
1
Ball-Chain Necklaces
306
2
Color Bands
308
1
Other Marking Methods
309
1
Conventions and Management of Banding Data
310
1
Precautions
310
1
Appendix 8: Recording Mammal Calls
311
32
William L. Gannon
Mercedes S. Foster
Introduction
311
1
Mammals as Noisemakers
311
1
A Need for Better Documentation
311
1
Equipment
312
4
Audio Tape Recorders
312
3
Microphones
315
1
Tape
316
1
Other Considerations
316
1
Field Gear Checklist
316
1
Recording Calls of Free-Ranging Mammals
316
2
Documenting Calls
316
1
Recording Techniques
317
1
Playback Techniques
318
1
Recording Calls from Captive Mammals
318
1
Handling Tapes
318
7
Call Analysis
325
2
Appendix 9: Vendors of Supplies and Equipment for Mammal Diversity Studies
Rasanayagam Rudran
F. Russell Cole
General Field and Laboratory Supplies
327
1
Maps
328
1
Global Positioning Systems
329
1
Capture Equipment
329
1
General
329
1
Nets
329
1
Dart Guns
330
1
Light Aircraft
330
1
Marking Supplies and Equipment
330
2
Split-Rings, Bands, Tags, and Ball-Chain Necklaces
330
1
Betalights
331
1
Cyalume
331
1
Punch-Marking and Tattooing Equipment
331
1
Fluorescent Powder and Hand-Held Ultraviolet Lights
332
1
Tapes
332
1
Chemicals and Drugs
332
1
Electronic Equipment
333
4
Radio Transmitters and Radiotelemetry Equipment
333
1
Ultrasonic Bat Detectors
334
1
Motion Detectors
335
1
Audio Equipment
335
2
Remote Cameras, Triggering Devices, and Film
337
1
Environmental Monitoring Equipment
337
1
Monitoring Equipment and Supplies
337
1
Data Loggers
338
1
Museum and Collecting Supplies
338
3
General Museum Supplies
338
2
Jars, Bottles, and Vials
340
1
Cryogenic Supplies
340
1
Specimen Storage Cases, Drums, and Tanks
341
1
Computer Equipment
341
2
Computer Hardware and Supplies
341
1
Computer Software
341
2
Appendix 10: Table of Random Numbers
343
12
Lee-Ann C. Hayek
Instructions for Use
343
1
Example
344
2
Table of Random Numbers
346
9
Literature Cited
355
36
Index
391
14
Addresses of Authors and Contributors
405