Introduction

The Politics of Electoral System Development and Change: The Danish Case

Jorgen Elklit

Introduction

The six national, lower house electoral systems in Denmark since 1849

Major parties and governing coalitions in Denmark 1849-1990s

Suffrage

1830s and 1840s

1848

1849-1915 (or: DEN-I)

1915-20 (or: DEN-II)

1920-1990s (or: DEN-III to DEN-VI)

Suffrage in Denmark since the 1830s

Electoral System Development and Politics in Denmark from the Early 1830s to the late 1990s

From 1849 to 1915, or: DEN-I

The first major change, 1915-20, or: DEN-II

The subsequent change in 1920, or: DEN-III

The 1947-48 punitive action against the Liberals, or: DEN-IV

The 1953 constitutional and elections act amendments, or: DEN-V

Vote and seat shares for the two largest parties (the Social Democrats and the Liberals) in the general elections 1945-50

Softer legal thresholds since 1964 and possible effects thereof, or: DEN-VI

Average measures of disproportionality and fractionalization for six Danish electoral systems

Electoral Laws and Their Consequences

The link between electoral system and party system

Disproportionality

Malapportionment

Smallest and biggest constituency in selected years 1849-1915

Is a Conclusion Possible?

Folketing Election Results 1887-July 1920

Folketing Election Results 1918-September 1920

Folketing Election Results 1924-1957

Folketing Election Results 1960-1971

Folketing Election Results 1973-1988

Folketing Election Results 1990-1998

The Electoral System of Finland: Old, and Working Well

Jan Sundberg

Introduction

The Turn to Universal Suffrage

Electoral System Eras

Electoral Laws and Their Consequences

The increase in the electorate since 1907

The Effects of the D'Hondt System

Disproportionality and fragmentation in Finnish elections since 1907

Constituency Malapportionment

Disproportionality at constituency level at the parliamentary elections 1966, 1979 and 1995 as measured by least-squares index

Conclusions

Appendix

The Icelandic Electoral System 1844-1999

Olafur Th. Hardarson

Introduction

The Electoral Systems

The ten Icelandic electoral systems 1844-1999

The Party System

Parties represented in the Althingi and Government 1845-1999

Suffrage

1843-1857: Strict property requirements (Ice1)

A Liberal interlude: election to the National Assembly 1851

1857-1903: Tax qualifications, especially in towns and villages --- most farmers get the vote (Ice2 and Ice3)

1903-1915: Extended suffrage for town workers and fishermen (Ice4)

1915-1920: Women and servants obtain the vote: special age qualifications (Ice5)

1920-1933: Special age limits for women and servants abolished (Ice 6)

1933-1999: Suffrage for recipients of poor relief and lowering age limits (Ice7 to Ice10)

Suffrage: size of electorate as percent of population 1874-1999

The Ten Electoral Systems

1844-1852 (Ice 1): simple plurality (20 members) in single-member constituencies + 6 royal members

1858-1869 (Ice2): absolute majority (up to 3 rounds) in 21 single-member constituencies + 6 royal members

1874-1903 (Ice3): absolute majority (up to 3 rounds) in single-member and two-member constituencies (30 members) + 6 royal members

1908-1914 (Ice4): first-past-the-post in single-member and two-member constituencies (34 members) + 6 royal members

1920-1933 (Ice 6): first-past-the-post in single-member and two-member constituencies (32 members) + PR (d'Hondt) in Reykjavik (4 members) + PR (d'Hondt) in a special country at-large election (6 members for a 8-year term)

New century---new system: decreasing (but remaining) malapportionment

Impact of the Electoral Systems

Disproportionality for individual parties in the Althingi 1916-1999

Malapportionment

Conclusions

Appendix

Electoral Systems in Norway

Bernt Aardal

Introduction

Electoral systems in Norway since 1814

Parties represented in the Storing 1882-1997

Table 2b: Governing parties in Norway 1884-1997

Party System and Cleavage Structure

Suffrage Extensions

Electoral System Eras

1814-1905: Indirect, plurality elections

Majority Runoff Elections 1906-1918

Proportional Elections---the d'Hondt Method 1919-52

Redistricting and the Sainte-Lague Method 1953-88

The 1988 Reform: Two-Tier Districting, 8 Adjustment Seats

Electoral Laws and Their Consequences

Malapportionment

Parties Behaving Strategically

Conclusions

Appendix

Party and Electoral System in Sweden

Bo Sarlvik

Electoral system eras and the details of system usage, Sweden 1866-1998

Parties in the second chamber, their seats in percent and the formal governing coalitions categorized in majority and minority governments based on their strength in the second chamber 1911-1998

Electoral participation as a percentage of adults eligible to vote

From Four-Estate Parliament to Two-Chamber Parliament: The First Two Electoral Eras in Sweden

Extension of the suffrage with proportional representation as a conservative guarantee

Proportional Representation in Practice: Second Chamber Elections in the Third Electoral Era, 1911-1920

Constitutional democratization and electoral system change

Party division of seats in the First Chamber: 1917-1925

Consequences of the d'Hondt formula in the fourth electoral era, 1921-1948

Elections to the First Chamber

Party division in the First Chamber 1929-1968

Proportional Representation Without Electoral Cartels: The Modified Sainte-Lague Formula Replaces d'Hondt in the Fifth Electoral Era, 1952-1968

Elections to the First Chamber and the operation of the two chamber system

The Social Democrats' parliamentary bases in the two chambers, 1932-1970

The Sixth Electoral Era, 1970-1998

Constitutional Reform: A One-Chamber Parliament and Increased Proportionality through Additional Seats

The ice thaws and breaks up at the edges: new parties pass the threshold, uncertain coalitions, and minority governments

Electoral system change: candidate preference voting within the party list system

Looking to the future

Share of votes in percent, the number of seats for each party and share of seats in percent in the Second Chamber elections between 1911 and 1998

Percent constituencies with direct elected members to the Second Chamber 1866-1908

Under-representation of the rural population in the Second Chamber 1866-1908

Percent share of employers in four different branches of business in Sweden between 1870 and 1994

Percent share of the Swedish population living in densely populated areas/ sparsely populated areas between 1860 and 1990*

References

Index