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Tables of Contents for Criminal Law
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xxv
Acknowledgments
xxvii
Chapter 1. The Sources and Limitations of the Criminal Law
1
16
Overview
1
1
Sources of Criminal Law
2
3
The Common Law as a Source of Criminal Law
2
1
Legislative Sources
3
1
The Model Penal Code as a Source of Criminal Law
3
1
Constitutional Sources and Limits
4
1
Limitations on the Criminal Law
5
8
The Principle of Legality
5
3
The Common Law in England
5
1
The Common Law in the United States
6
1
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Common Law Crimes
6
1
Contemporary Law
7
1
Ex Post Facto
8
1
The Rule of Lenity
9
1
Void for Vagueness
9
1
The Burden of Proof
10
3
Examples and Explanations
13
4
Chapter 2. The Purposes of Punishment
17
18
Overview
17
1
Defining Punishment
17
1
The Purposes of Punishment
18
11
Utilitarianism
18
6
Deterrence
19
2
Incapacitation
21
1
Rehabilitation
22
2
Empirical Critiques
24
1
Normative Critiques
24
1
Retribution
24
3
The Relationship of the Theories
27
1
The Importance of Sentencing
27
2
"Civil" v. "Punitive"
29
6
The Difference Between "Criminal" and "Civil" Confinement
29
1
A Contemporary Example: Sexual Predator Laws
29
6
Examples and Explanations
Chapter 3. Actus Reus
35
12
Overview
35
1
The Common Law
35
4
Voluntary Act
36
1
Omission and Legal Duty
36
1
Moral Duty
37
1
Possession
38
1
The Model Penal Code
39
2
Voluntary Act
39
1
Omission and Legal Duty
39
1
A More Precise Definition for Actus Reus
40
1
Possession
41
1
Examples and Explanations
41
6
Chapter 4. The Doctrines of Mens Rea
47
34
Overview
47
1
The Concepts of Mens Rea
48
1
"Traditional" and "Statutory" Mens Rea
48
12
Specific Kinds of Mens Rea
50
8
Intent
50
4
Recklessness
54
1
Negligence as a Predicate for Criminal Liability
55
3
Proving Mens Rea
58
1
Motive and Mens Rea
59
1
Motive and Defenses
60
1
Contemporaneity, Prior Fault, and Time Frames
60
2
Statutory Interpretation and Mens Rea
62
5
Principles of Statutory Construction
62
2
Element Analysis
64
2
The "Default Position"
66
1
The Model Penal Code
67
6
Element Analysis
67
5
Elements and Material Elements
67
1
Kinds of Material Elements
68
1
Levels of Culpability
68
1
Mens Rea and Material Elements
69
3
The Default Position Under the Code
72
1
Subjectivity vs. Objectivity
72
1
Examples and Explanations
73
8
Chapter 5. Mistake
81
20
Overview
81
1
Mistake and Ignorance of Law
81
9
Ignorance of the Law
83
2
Mistake of Law
85
2
Exceptions to the Rule
87
1
"Specific Intent" Crimes
87
1
Noncriminal Law Mistake
87
1
The Model Penal Code
88
2
Retention of the "Ignorantia Lex" Doctrine
88
1
The "Reasonable Reliance" Approach to Mistake
88
2
Mistake of Fact
90
2
Reasonableness and Specific Intent
90
2
Knowledge and Willful Blindness
92
1
Mistake of Legal Fact
92
1
The Model Penal Code
93
1
A Note on the Future of Mistake
94
1
Examples and Explanations
95
6
Chapter 6. Strict Liability
101
20
Overview
101
1
The Reach of Strict Criminal Liability
102
2
Definitions and Indicia of Strict Liability
104
5
Public Welfare Offenses
104
1
Mala in Se ("Real") vs. Mala Prohibita ("Unreal"?) Crimes
105
1
"Regulatory" or "Police" Offense
106
1
The Litmus Test of Available Punishments
107
1
Innocent Actors
108
1
Strict vs. Vicarious Liability
109
1
Policy Analysis: Arguments For and Against Strict Liability
110
1
Alternatives to Strict Liability
111
1
"Greater Crime" Theory
112
2
Constitutionality
114
1
The Model Penal Code
115
1
A Recap and a Methodology
115
1
Examples and Explanations
116
5
Chapter 7. Causation
121
28
Overview
121
1
The Rationale of Causation
122
1
The Elements of Causation
123
10
The Common Law
123
8
Responsibility for Causing Harm
123
1
Cause in Fact
123
1
Omission as a Cause
124
1
Concurrent Causation
124
1
Direct Cause
125
1
Proximate Cause
125
6
Contributory Negligence and Proximate Causation
131
1
The Model Penal Code
131
18
Responsibility for Causing Harm
131
1
"But For" Causation
131
1
Other Causation, Concurrent Causation, and Transferred Intent
132
1
Culpability as to Result
132
1
Examples and Explanations
133
16
Chapter 8. Homicide
149
40
Overview
149
1
Human Being
149
2
When Does Life Begin?
149
1
When Does Life End?
150
1
Cause and Death
150
1
Murder
151
5
"Original" Murder: Killing with "Malice Aforethought"
151
1
Presumed Malice
152
1
Gradations of Murder
152
2
"First-Degree" Murder
152
2
"Second-Degree" Murder
154
1
The Model Penal Code Approach
154
1
Some Further Thoughts
155
1
Examples and Explanations
156
4
Felony Murder
160
8
Introduction
161
1
Restrictions on the Doctrine: "Cause" Questions
161
2
The "Proximate Cause" Theory
162
1
The "In Furtherance" or "Agency" Theory
162
1
Justified vs. Excused Killings
162
1
The Shield Cases: Exception to an Exception to an Exception
163
1
The Mens Rea Approach
163
1
Other Restrictions
163
10
Duration of the Felony: Time Matters
163
1
Limitations on the Predicate Felony
164
3
Statutory Felony Murder: The Interplay of Courts and Legislatures
167
1
The Model Penal Code Approach
167
1
Examples and Explanations
168
5
Manslaughter
173
6
Voluntary Manslaughter
173
5
The Rules of Voluntary Manslaughter
173
3
Twentieth-Century Changes in the Doctrines
176
1
Critique of Manslaughter Doctrine
177
1
Involuntary Manslaughter
178
12
Reckless and Negligent Manslaughter
178
1
Misdemeanor-Manslaughter
179
1
The Model Penal Code Approach
179
2
Examples and Explanations
181
8
Chapter 9. Rape
189
30
Overview
189
1
The Common Law Approach
190
5
Definition
190
1
Spousal Immunity
191
1
Force
191
1
Threat of Force
192
1
Consent
192
1
Attacking the Credibility of the Complainant
193
1
Legally Ineffective Consent
193
1
Fraud
194
1
American Common Law
194
1
The Actus Reus of Rape
195
1
The Mens Rea of Rape
195
1
The Model Penal Code
196
3
Second-Degree Rape
197
1
First-Degree Rape
198
1
Gross Sexual Imposition
198
1
Modern Rape Statutes
199
8
Rape by Force or Threat of Serious Bodily Injury
200
3
Force
200
1
Additional Force
200
1
Inherent Force
201
1
Nonphysical Force
202
1
Dispensing with the Force Requirement
202
1
Threat of Force
203
1
Resistance by the Victim
203
1
Consent
204
1
Deception
205
1
Rape in the First Degree
205
1
Spousal Immunity
206
1
Rape Because No Legally Effective Consent
206
1
Summary
206
1
Evidence Reforms
207
2
The Corroboration Requirement
207
1
Rape Shield Laws
208
1
Examples and Explanations
209
10
Chapter 10. Theft
219
24
Overview
219
1
The Impact of History
220
1
The Death Penalty
220
1
Protecting Trade vs. Protecting Individualism
220
1
Larceny
221
7
Trespass
222
1
Asportation and Taking
223
1
Personal Property
224
1
Of Another
225
1
With Intent
225
1
To Deprive
226
1
Permanently
226
1
Contemporaneity
227
1
Finders
227
1
Embezzlement
228
2
Conversion
229
1
In Lawful Possession
229
1
Fraud
230
1
False Pretenses
230
3
Representation
231
1
Present or Past Fact
231
1
Title
232
1
Mens Rea, Knowledge, and Intent to Defraud
232
1
Puffing and Opinion
233
1
Confusion
233
1
Grading
234
1
The Model Penal Code
235
2
Examples and Explanations
237
6
Chapter 11. Solicitation
243
12
Overview
243
1
Definition
244
1
The Common Law
244
1
The Model Penal Code
245
1
Another Version of Solicitation
245
1
The Mens Rea of Solicitation
245
1
The Common Law
245
1
The Model Penal Code
246
1
The Actus Reus of Solicitation
246
1
The Common Law
246
1
The Model Penal Code
246
1
The Relationship Between Solicitation and Conspiracy
247
1
Responsibility for Crime Solicited
247
1
Solicitation and Immunity for Crime Solicited
247
1
Solicitation and Innocent Agents
248
1
Impossibility
248
1
The Common Law
248
1
Legal Impossibility
248
1
Factual Impossibility
248
1
The Model Penal Code
249
1
Abandonment
249
1
Solicitation and Law Enforcement
250
1
Punishment
250
1
Examples and Explanations
251
4
Chapter 12. Attempt
255
28
Overview
255
1
Definition
256
1
The Mens Rea of Attempt
256
1
The Actus Reus of Attempt
256
1
The Common Law
257
2
Mens Rea
257
1
Intend the Act
257
1
Intend the Result
257
1
Intend the Circumstances
257
1
Actus Reus
258
1
Last Act
258
1
The Equivocality Test
258
1
Proximity Test
259
1
Probable Desistance
259
1
The Model Penal Code
259
2
Definition
259
1
Mens Rea
260
1
Conduct
260
1
Result
260
1
Circumstance
260
1
Actus Reus
260
1
Summary
261
1
Abandonment
262
1
The Common Law
262
1
The Model Penal Code
262
1
Impossibility: Legal, Factual, and Inherent
263
6
The Common Law
265
2
Legal Impossibility
265
1
Factual Impossibility
265
1
Analysis
265
1
Inherent Impossibility
266
1
The Model Penal Code
267
1
Legal Impossibility
267
1
Factual Impossibility
267
1
Inherent Impossibility
267
1
Stalking
268
1
Examples and Explanations
269
14
Chapter 13. Conspiracy
283
48
Overview
283
1
Definition
284
1
The Common Law
285
1
The Model Penal Code
285
1
Punishment and Grading
285
2
The Common Law
285
1
The Model Penal Code
286
1
The Special Advantages of Conspiracy for Prosecutors
287
4
Choice of Venue
287
1
Joint Trials
287
1
Use of Hearsay Evidence
288
1
Responsibility for Crimes Committed by Co-Conspirators
289
3
The Common Law
289
1
The Model Penal Code
290
1
Federal Sentencing Guidelines Limit the Pinkerton Rule
291
1
Duration
291
2
The Common Law
292
1
Extending the Life of a Conspiracy
292
1
The Model Penal Code
292
1
Consequences of Termination
293
1
The Mens Rea of Conspiracy
293
3
The Common Law
293
2
Act and Result
293
1
Circumstances
294
1
The Model Penal Code
295
3
Conduct and Result
295
1
Circumstances
296
1
The Corrupt Motive Doctrine
296
4
The Crimmins Doctrine
298
1
Purpose or Knowledge When Providing Goods and Services
299
1
Case Law
299
1
The Model Penal Code
300
1
The Actus Reus of Conspiracy
300
4
Agreement
300
3
The Common Law
300
3
The Model Penal Code
303
1
Overt Act
303
2
In General
303
1
The Model Penal Code
304
1
The Scope of the Agreement or How Many Conspiracies?
304
5
Single Agreement with Multiple Criminal Objectives
305
1
Single or Multiple Agreements?
305
4
The Wheel and Spokes Approach
305
1
The Chain Approach
306
1
Wheel and Chain Conspiracies
307
1
The Model Penal Code
308
1
Parties to a Conspiracy
309
3
The Common Law's Bilateral Approach
309
1
The Model Penal Code's Unilateral Approach
310
2
Abandonment
312
1
The Common Law
312
1
The Model Penal Code
312
1
Withdrawal
313
1
The Common Law
313
1
The Model Penal Code
313
1
Impossibility
314
1
Legal Impossibility
314
1
Factual Impossibility
314
1
Wharton's Rule
315
1
The Common Law
315
1
The Model Penal Code
316
1
Immunity for Substantive Offense
316
1
The Common Law
316
1
The Model Penal Code
317
1
Examples and Explanations
317
14
Chapter 14. Complicity
331
32
Overview
331
1
The Rationale of Accomplice Liability
332
1
Definitions
333
3
The Common Law
333
2
The Model Penal Code
335
1
Procedural Consequences of Classification
336
2
The Common Law
336
2
The Model Penal Code
338
1
Contemporary Law
338
1
Elements of Accessorial Liability
339
9
Mens Rea
339
5
The Mens Rea of the Crime Aided
339
1
The Mens Rea to Be an Accomplice: Purpose or Intent to Aid the Principal's Criminal Action
339
2
Knowledge That Another Intends to Commit a Crime
341
1
Providers of Goods and Services
341
1
Liability for Unintended Crimes Committed by the Principal
342
2
Actus Reus
344
4
Actual Assistance
344
1
Omission
344
1
How Much Aid Is Enough?
345
1
Immunity from Conviction
346
1
Conduct Necessarily Part of the Crime
347
1
Legal Incapacity to Commit Substantive Crime
347
1
The Relationship Between Principal and Accessories
348
3
The Common Law
348
2
The Requirement of a Guilty Principal
348
1
The Pretending Principal
348
1
Differences in Degree of Culpability Between Principal and Accomplice
349
1
Withdrawal of Aid
350
1
The Model Penal Code
350
15
The Requirement of a Guilty Principal
350
1
The Pretending Principal
351
1
Differences in Degree of Culpability Between Principal and Accomplice
351
1
Withdrawal of Aid
351
1
Examples and Explanations
351
12
Chapter 15. Defenses: An Initial Survey
363
22
Overview
363
1
Affirmative Defenses and Element Negations
364
7
Legislative Clarity and the Offense-Defense Distinction
365
1
The Common Law and Affirmative Defenses
366
1
Supreme Court Confusion
367
4
The Model Penal Code
371
1
Presumptions
371
4
Constitutional Aspects of Presumptions
373
2
The Model Penal Code
375
1
Excuse and Justification: The Debate and Confusion
375
4
The Distinction Drawn
375
1
The Distinction Questioned
376
1
Procedural Implications of the Distinctions
377
9
The Burden of Proof Problem
377
1
The Abolition Problem
378
1
The Assistance and Resistance Problem
378
1
Unknowing Justification: "The Dodson Problem"
378
1
Examples and Explanations
379
6
Chapter 16. Acts in Emergency: Justification vs. Excuse
385
46
Overview
385
1
Common Requirements, Common Problems
386
4
Excused or Justified? Or Both?
386
1
Actus Reus, Mens Rea, or Both? Or Neither?
387
1
Actus Reus
387
1
Mens Rea
387
1
Why Punish?
388
2
Mistaken Justifications
388
1
Mistake - Honest, or Reasonable?
389
1
Duress
390
4
The Doctrines of Duress
390
3
Personal Injury
390
1
"Imminence"
391
1
Reasonableness of Fear
391
1
To "Himself"
391
1
Creating Conditions of Duress
392
1
Duress and Homicide
392
1
The Guilt of the Duressor: A Note
393
1
The Rationale of Duress
393
1
The Model Penal Code
394
1
Necessity
394
5
The Doctrines of Necessity
394
3
Duress vs. Necessity
395
1
Necessity and Homicide
396
1
Creating Conditions of Necessity
396
1
Excuse or Justification?
397
1
The Problems of Imminence and Democracy
397
1
The Model Penal Code
398
1
Examples and Explanations
399
5
Self-Defense
404
1
The Rules of Self-Defense
405
11
Imminence; No Alternatives
405
3
Preemptive Strikes
405
1
To Retreat or Not to Retreat, That Is the Dilemma
406
2
Proportionality and Subjectivity
408
1
Mistake and Reasonableness
409
1
The Position of the "Aggressor"; Withdrawal
410
1
The "Not Unlawful" Aggressor
411
1
The Battered Wives Cases: A Challenge to the Doctrines
411
2
Conclusion: Need for a General Rethinking
413
1
Doctrinal Problems of Self-Defense
414
1
The Mens Rea of Self-Defense
414
1
Justification or Excuse?
415
1
Defense of Others
415
1
The Model Penal Code
415
1
Examples and Explanations
416
3
Defense of Property and Habitat
419
3
The Common Law
419
2
Other Lawful Means Available
420
1
Warning
420
1
Deadly Force Not Permitted
420
1
The Model Penal Code
421
3
Initial Agression
421
1
Retaking Property
421
1
Use of Force
421
1
Examples and Explanations
422
2
Use of Force
424
4
Arrest
424
3
The Common Law
424
2
The Model Penal Code
426
1
Preventing Crime
427
6
The Common Law
427
1
The Model Penal Code
427
1
Examples and Explanations
428
3
Chapter 17. Defenses Based on Individual Characteristics
431
60
Overview
431
1
Insanity
432
10
The Relevance of Mental Illness in the Criminal Justice System
433
2
Competency to Stand Trial
433
1
Transfer from Prison to a Psychiatric Hospital
434
1
Release from Confinement
435
1
Execution Pursuant to a Sentence of Death
435
1
The Insanity Defense
435
4
The M'Naghten Test
435
2
The Irresistible Impulse Test
437
1
The Model Penal Code Test
437
2
The Federal Insanity Test
439
1
Reform of the Insanity Defense
439
1
Substantive Changes
439
1
Procedural Changes
439
1
Insanity Defense Myths and Facts
440
1
The Guilty but Mentally Ill Defense
440
10
Historical Origin
440
1
Jury Options
441
1
Dispostional Consequences
441
1
Arguments Pro and Con
441
1
The Empirical Consequences of the GBMI Defense
442
1
Examples and Explanations
442
8
Infancy
450
1
The Common Law
450
1
Under Age 7
451
1
Between Ages 7 and 14
451
1
Over Age 14
451
1
The Model Penal Code
451
1
Contemporary Law
451
2
Juvenile Court Jurisdiction
451
1
Criminal Responsibility
452
1
Example and Explanation
453
1
Intoxication
454
8
Intoxication as an Element
455
1
The Relevance of Voluntary Intoxication to Mens Rea or Culpability
456
3
The Common Law
456
2
The Model Penal Code
458
1
The Relevance of Voluntary Intoxication to Defenses
459
1
Involuntary Intoxication
460
1
The Relevance of Voluntary Intoxication to Actus Reus
460
1
Alcoholism and Insanity
461
1
Examples and Explanations
462
4
Diminished Capacity
466
5
A Brief History
466
4
The British Version: Diminished Responsibility
467
1
The California Version
467
2
The Rule of Evidence Approach
469
1
The Model Penal Code
470
1
Summary
470
1
Examples and Explanations
471
3
Entrapment
474
3
The History of the Entrapment Defense
474
1
The Defense Today
475
8
The Subjective Approach
475
1
The Objective Approach
476
1
Due Process
477
1
Examples and Explanations
477
4
New Excuses: The Future Is Upon Us
481
8
Physiologically (Biologically) Based Excuses for Criminality
483
3
The XYY Chromosome Affair
484
1
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
484
1
Other Physiologically Based Claims
485
1
Psychologically Based Excuses
486
1
Brainwashing
486
1
Mob Mentality
487
1
Sociologically Based Claims
487
2
Criminogenic Causes: Rotten Social Background
487
1
Urban Survival Syndrome and Black Rage
488
1
"Abuse Excuses"
488
1
Recap
489
1
Examples and Explanations
489
2
Table of Selected Cases
491
4
Index
495