The Regulation of Virulence in the Staphylococci

Paul M. Dunman

Steven J. Projan

Introduction

Staphylococcal Virulence Factors

Coordinate Regulation of Virulence

Conclusions

References

Small Colony Variants of Staphylococcus aureus: Mechanisms for Production, Biology of Infection, and Clinical Significance

Christof von Eiff

Georg Peters

Richard A. Proctor

Introduction

SCVs are Electron Transport Variants

Survival Advantages of SCVs

Recovery of SCVs from Patients

SCVs and Clinical Laboratory

Characterization of a Stable Mutant in Electron Transport with SCV Phenotype

SCVs and Other Species

Therapeutic Implications of SCV Formation

References

Capsule Production

Chia Y. Lee

Introduction

Structure of Staphylococcal Capsules

Role of Staphylococcal Capsule in Virulence

Genetics and Regulation of the Capsular Genes

Biosynthesis of Microcapsules

Conclusion

References

Capsule and Vaccine Development

Jean C. Lee

Introduction

Rationale for Capsule as a Vaccine Target

Protection Afforded by Crude Capsular Preparations

Purified CPI as a Protective Immunogen

Protection Against Serotype 5 and 8 S. aureus

Immunization of Animals with CP5 and CP8 Conjugate Vaccines

Active Immunization of Humans with CP5 / CP8 Conjugate Vaccines

Passive Immunization of Humans with Capsular Antibodies

Poly-N-Succinyl β-1 → 6 Glucosamine (PNSG)

Capsular Vaccines Against Bovine Mastitis

Prospects for the Future

References

Superantigen Activation of Macrophages

Stephen K. Chapes

Albion D. Wright

Alison A. Beharka

Staphylococcal Superantigens

What Are Superantigens?

Macrophage-Superantigen Interactions

Macrophages Have Disparate Responses to Staphylococcal Superantigens

The MHC II Has Two Distinct Superantigen Binding Epitopes that Regulate Macrophage Responses

The Low Affinity Superantigen Epitopes Control IL-6

Superantigen-Mediated MHC I Receptor Cross-Linking Enhances Macrophage Activation

Contribution of Macrophage-Response Genes in Superantigen Pathogenesis

Conclusion

References

Toxin Production

Jeremy M. Yarwood

Patrick M. Schlievert

Introduction

Toxin Production Profiles and Disease Association

Regulation and Control of Toxin Production

Toxin Processing and Secretion

References

Staphylococcal Enterotoxins

Shuping Zhang

George C. Stewart

Staphylococcal Food Poisoning

Enterotoxins

Enterotoxin Mode of Action

A Rose by Any Other Name---Pyrogenic Toxin Superantigens

Enterotoxin Role in Staphylococcal Diseases

Nature of the Genetic Elements Encoding the Enterotoxins

Expression and Regulation of Enterotoxin Genes

References

Staphylococcal Extracellular/Surface Enzymatic Activity

Vijaykumar Pancholi

Introduction

Innate Surface Enzyme Activity

Acquired Surface Enzymatic Activity

Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDH)

References

Surface Protein Anchoring and Display in Staphylococci

Hung Ton-That

Sarkis K. Mazmanian

Gwen Liu

Olaf Schneewind

Introduction

Staphylococcal Surface Proteins

Cell Wall Anchored Protein A

The Cell Wall Sorting Reaction

Sorting Signals and Surface Proteins

Display of Proteins on the Staphylococcal Surface

The Peptidoglycan Substrate of the Sorting Reaction

Sortase and the Sorting Reaction

Transpeptidation Reactions: Sortase, Penicillin Binding Proteins and Transamidase

Cell Wall Sorting in Other Gram-Positive Bacteria

Conclusions

References

Pore-forming Cytolysins α- and γ-Hemolysins and Leukocidin from Staphylococcus aureus

Yoshiyuki Kamio

Toshio Tomita

Jun Kaneko

Introduction

Molecular Basis for the Membrane Pore Formation by HLA

Molecular Cloning of the Genes Encoding Staphylococcal Bi-component Cytolysins and Molecular Dissection of these Cytolysins for Understanding Their Cell Specificities

PVL in Human Infections: A Virulence Determinant Associated with Necrotic Lesions that Have Potentially Severe Prognoses

Vitronectin and its Fragments Purified as Serum Inhibitors of HLG and Luk, and Their Specific Binding to HLG2 and Luks of the Toxins

References

Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis

Mark S. Smeltzer

Carl L. Nelson

Introduction

The Clinical Syndromes of Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis

The Economic Impact of Bone and Joint Infection

Host Factors that Contribute to Musculoskeletal Infection

Bacterial Factors that Contribute to Infection

Treatment of Staphylococcal Musculoskeletal Infection

References

Internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by Nonprofessional Phagocytes

Kenneth W. Bayles

Gregory A. Bohach

Introduction

Early Key Studies Demonstrating the Internalization of S. aureus by Various Types of Nonprofessional Phagocytes

Cellular Effects of Intracellular S. aureus

Staphylococcal Factors Required for Internalization

Infection by S. aureus Induces Apoptosis in Nonprofessional Phagocytes

References

Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis

Larry K. Fox

Kenneth W. Bayles

Gregory A. Bohach

Introduction

Pathogenesis

Identification and Diagnosis

Prevalence

Interactions of S. aureus with the Bovine Immune System

Subversion of the Bovine Mammary Gland Defenses

Control

Treatment

Conclusions

References

Global Regulation of Virulence Determinants in Staphylococcus aureus

Ambrose L. Cheung

Introduction

Global Regulation of Virulence Determinants during the Growth Cycle Based on in vitro Studies

Virulence Gene Expression in Host Environments

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

Index