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Tables of Contents for Perspectives on Personality
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xix
PART ONE An Introduction
1
52
What Is Personality Psychology?
2
15
Defining Personality
3
4
Why Do People Use Personality as a Concept?
3
2
A Working Definition
5
1
Two Fundamental Issues in Personality Psychology
6
1
Theory in Personality Psychology
7
3
What Do Theories Do?
7
1
Evaluating Theories: The Role of Research
8
1
What Else Makes a Theory Good?
9
1
Perspectives on Personality
10
3
Groupings among Theories
11
1
How Distinct Are the Perspectives?
12
1
Another Kind of ``Perspective''
13
1
Organization within Chapters
13
2
Assessment
14
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
14
1
Summary
15
2
Methods in the Study of Personality
17
19
Gathering Information
18
3
Sources: Observe Yourself and Observe Others
18
1
Seeking Depth: Case Studies
19
1
Seeking Generality: Studies of Many People
20
1
Establishing Relationships among Variables
21
14
Correlation between Variables
22
4
Two Kinds of Significance
26
1
Causality and a Limitation on Inference
27
1
Search for Causality: Experimental Research
28
3
Recognizing Types of Study
31
1
What Kind of Research Is Best?
32
1
Multifactor Studies
32
1
Reading Figures from Multifactor Research
33
2
Summary
35
1
Issues in Personality Assessment
36
17
Sources of Information
37
1
Reliability of Measurement
38
4
Internal Consistency
39
2
Inter-Rater Reliability
41
1
Stability across Time
41
1
Validity of Measurement
42
6
Construct Validity
44
1
Criterion Validity
44
1
Convergent Validity
45
1
Discriminant Validity
45
1
Face Validity
46
1
Culture and Validity
46
1
Response Sets and Loss of Validity
47
1
Two Rationales behind the Development of Assessment Devices
48
3
Rational, or Theoretical, Approach
49
1
Empirical Approaches
49
2
Better Assessment: A Never-Ending Search
51
1
Summary
51
2
PART TWO The Dispositional Perspective
53
69
Prologue: The Dispositional Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
54
2
Types, Traits, and Interactionism
56
34
Types and Traits
57
2
Nomothetic and Idiographic Views of Traits
58
1
What Traits Matter?
59
9
A Tool to Use along the Way: Factor Analysis
60
1
Let Reality Reveal Itself: Cattell's Approach
61
3
Start from a Theory: Eysenck's Approach
64
3
Other Theoretical Starting Points: Folk Concepts and the Interpersonal Circle
67
1
The Five-Factor Model: The Basic Dimensions of Personality?
68
6
What Are the Five Factors?
69
2
The Five-Factor Model in Relation to Other Models
71
1
Further Variations
72
1
Are Superordinate Traits the Best Level to Use?
73
1
Traits, Situations, and Interactionism
74
7
Is Behavior Actually Traitlike?
74
1
Situationism
74
1
Low Reliability in Measurement of Behavior
74
2
Interactionism
76
2
Individual Differences in Consistency
78
1
Beyond Analysis of Variance in Interactionism
79
1
Was the Problem Ever Really as Bad as It Seemed?
80
1
Interactionism Extended: Context-Dependent Expression of Personality
81
2
Older and Contemporary Views of Traits and Behavior
81
2
Assessment
83
1
Comparing Individuals: Personality Profiles
83
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
84
2
Interactionism in Behavior Problems
85
1
Behavior Change
85
1
Trait Psychology: Problems and Prospects
86
2
Summary
88
2
Needs and Motives
90
32
Basic Theoretical Elements
91
4
Needs
91
3
Motives
94
1
Press
94
1
Needs, Motives, and Personality
95
4
Motivational States and Motive Dispositions
95
1
Murray's System of Needs
96
2
Measuring Motives: The Thematic Apperception Test
98
1
Individual Differences in Specific Needs
99
11
Need for Achievement
100
4
Need for Power
104
2
Need for Affiliation
106
1
Need for Intimacy
107
2
Patterned Needs: Inhibited Power Motive
109
1
Further Determinants of Behavior
110
1
Incentive Value
110
1
The Methods of Personology
111
1
Assessment
112
3
Self-Reports and the TAT May Not Measure the Same Thing
113
1
Motives and the Five-Factor Model
113
1
Traits and Motives as Distinct
114
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
115
3
The Need for Power and Alcohol Abuse
115
1
Focusing on and Changing Motivation
115
3
Need and Motive Theories: Problems and Prospects
118
1
Summary
118
4
PART THREE The Biological Perspective
122
63
Prologue: The Biological Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
122
2
Inheritance, Evolution, and Personality
124
32
Physique and Personality
125
3
Somatotypes
125
1
Temperament
126
2
Determining the Role of Inheritance in Personality
128
2
Twin Study Method
128
2
Adoption Research
130
1
What Personality Qualities Are Inherited?
130
8
Temperaments: Activity, Sociability, and Emotionality
131
3
Are There Other Temperaments?
134
1
Inheritance of Traits
135
1
Temperaments and the Five-Factor Model
136
1
Genetics of Other Qualities: How Distinct Are They?
137
1
Two Further Issues
138
1
The Nature of Environmental Influences
138
1
Inheritance and Sexual Orientation
138
1
Evolution and Human Behavior
139
9
Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology
139
3
Genetic Similarity and Attraction
142
1
Mate Selection and Competition for Mates
143
2
Mate Retention and Other Issues
145
1
Aggression and the Young Male Syndrome
146
2
Assessment
148
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
148
4
Behavior Genetics and Disorders
148
3
Evolution and Problems in Behavior
151
1
Behavior Change: How Much Is Possible?
151
1
Inheritance and Evolution: Problems and Prospects
152
2
Summary
154
2
Biological Processes and Personality
156
29
Eysenck: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Brain Functions
157
4
Extraversion and Cortical Arousal
157
2
Cortical Arousal Differences
159
2
Biological Basis of Emotionality
161
1
A Different View of Brain Functions: Approach and Inhibition
161
6
Behavioral Approach, Activation, Engagement, or Facilitation
162
1
Neurotransmitters and the Approach System
163
1
Behavioral Inhibition, Withdrawal, or Avoidance
164
1
Relating These Systems to Temperaments or Traits
165
2
Sensation Seeking: A Third Biological System?
167
5
Sensation Seeking, Impulsiveness, and Other Theories
168
1
Brain Chemicals and Sensation Seeking
169
1
Biological Function of Sensation Seeking
170
2
Hormones and Personality
172
6
Hormones, the Body, and the Brain
172
1
Early Hormonal Exposure and Behavior
173
2
Testosterone and Adult Personality
175
2
Cycles of Hormones and Action
177
1
Hormones, Dominance, and Evolutionary Psychology
178
1
Assessment
178
2
Electroencephalograms
179
1
Computer-Assisted Imaging
179
1
Diagnosing Depression Chemically
180
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
180
2
Biological Bases of Anxiety, Depression, and Antisocial Personality
180
1
Medication in Therapy
181
1
Biological Processes and Personality: Problems and Prospects
182
3
Summary
183
2
PART FOUR The Psychoanalytic Perspective
185
64
Prologue: The Psychoanalytic Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
186
2
Psychoanalytic Structure and Process
188
30
The Topographical Model of Mind
191
2
Aspects of Personality: The Structural Model
193
5
Id
193
1
Ego
194
2
Superego
196
1
Balancing the Forces
197
1
Motivation: The Drives of Personality
198
7
Cathexes and the Utilization of Energy
199
1
Two Classes of Drives: Life and Death Instincts
200
2
Coming Together of Libidinal and Aggressive Energies
202
1
Catharsis
203
1
Displacement and Sublimation of Motive Forces
204
1
Psychosexual Development
205
9
The Oral Stage
206
2
The Anal Stage
208
1
The Phallic Stage
209
3
The Latency Period
212
1
The Genital Stage
213
1
Psychoanalytic Structure and Process: Problems and Prospects
214
2
Summary
216
2
Anxiety, Defense, and Self-Protection
218
31
Anxiety
219
1
Mechanisms of Defense
220
10
Repression
220
2
Denial
222
2
Projection
224
1
Rationalization
225
1
Intellectualization
225
1
Reaction Formation
226
1
Regression
226
1
Displacement and Sublimation
227
1
Research on Defenses
228
1
Evidence of Unconscious Conflict
228
2
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
230
5
Parapraxes
230
2
Dreams
232
3
Humor
235
1
Projective Techniques of Assessment
235
4
Rorschach Inkblot Test
237
2
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
239
6
Origins of Problems
239
1
Behavior Change
240
4
Does Psychoanalytic Therapy Work?
244
1
Psychoanalytic Defense: Problems and Prospects
245
1
Summary
246
3
PART FIVE The Neoanalytic Perspective
249
60
Prologue: The Neoanalytic Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
250
2
Ego Psychology
252
26
Principles of Ego Psychology
255
9
Shifting the Emphasis from Id to Ego
255
1
Adaptation and Autonomy
256
1
The Ego, Adaptation, and Competence Motivation
257
2
Is Competence Striving Automatic, or Is It Done to Remedy Inferiority?
259
3
Ego-Control and Ego-Resiliency
262
2
Ego Development
264
6
Early Ego Development
265
1
Middle Stages of Development: Control of Impulses
266
2
Advanced Stages of Development: Taking More into Account
268
1
Research on Ego Development
268
2
Assessment
270
3
Assessment of Lifestyles
270
1
Assessment of Level of Ego Development
271
2
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
273
2
Inferiority and Superiority Complexes
274
1
Behavior Change
274
1
Ego Psychology: Problems and Prospects
275
1
Summary
276
2
Psychosocial Theories
278
31
Object Relations Theories
279
4
Self Psychology
281
1
Basic Anxiety
282
1
Attachment Theory and Personality
283
5
Attachment Patterns in Adult Behavior
286
1
Other Reflections of Adult Attachment
287
1
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
288
13
Ego Identity, Competence, and the Experience of Crisis
289
1
Infancy
290
1
Early Childhood
291
1
Preschool
292
1
School Age
293
1
Adolescence
294
2
Young Adulthood
296
2
Adulthood
298
1
Old Age
299
1
The Epigenetic Principle
299
2
Comparing Erikson's Theory with Other Psychosocial Theories
301
1
Assessment
301
2
Object Relations, Attachment, and the Focus of Assessment
301
1
Play in Assessment
302
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
303
3
Narcissism as a Disorder of Personality
303
1
Neurotic Needs
304
1
Attachment and Depression
305
1
Behavior Change
305
1
Psychosocial Theories: Problems and Prospects
306
1
Summary
307
2
PART SIX The Learning Perspective
309
66
Prologue: The Learning Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
310
2
Conditioning Theories
312
31
Classical Conditioning
313
6
Basic Elements
313
3
Classical Conditioning as Anticipatory Learning
316
2
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Classical Conditioning
318
1
Emotional Conditioning
319
1
Instrumental Conditioning
319
11
The Law of Effect
321
1
Reinforcement and Punishment
322
2
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning
324
2
Altering the Shape of Behavior
326
1
Schedules of Reinforcement and the Issue of Persistence
326
2
Learning ``Irrational'' Behavior
328
2
Reinforcement of Dimensions of Behavior
330
1
Assessment
330
3
Techniques
331
2
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
333
6
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses
333
3
Classical Conditioning of Aversion
336
1
Instrumental Conditioning and Maladaptive Behaviors
337
1
Instrumental Conditioning of Conflict
337
1
Instrumental Conditioning and Token Economies
338
1
Instrumental Conditioning and Biofeedback
338
1
Conditioning Theories: Problems and Prospects
339
1
Summary
340
3
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories
343
32
Elaborations on Conditioning Processes
344
11
Social Reinforcement
344
2
Vicarious Emotional Arousal
346
2
Vicarious Reinforcement
348
1
Semantic Generalization
349
1
Rule-Based Learning
349
1
Expectancies Concerning Outcomes
350
1
Locus-of-Control Expectancies
351
3
Efficacy Expectancies
354
1
Observational Learning
355
5
Acquisition versus Performance
357
3
Manifestations of Cognitive and Social Learning
360
3
Modeling and Sex Role Acquisition
360
2
Modeling of Aggression and the Issue of Media Violence
362
1
Assessment
363
2
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
365
6
Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems
365
1
Modeling-Based Therapy for Skill Deficits
366
1
Modeling and Responses to Fear
367
1
Therapeutic Changes in Efficacy Expectancy
368
2
Self-Instructions and Cognitive Behavior Modification
370
1
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories: Problems and Prospects
371
2
Summary
373
2
PART SEVEN The Phenomenological Perspective
375
60
Prologue: The Phenomenological Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
376
2
Humanistic Psychology: Self-Actualization and Self-Determination
378
32
Self-Actualization
379
4
The Need for Positive Regard
380
3
Self-Determination
383
3
Free Will and Reactance
384
2
The Self and Processes of Defense
386
3
Incongruity, Disorganization, and Defense
386
1
Self-Esteem Maintenance and Enhancement
387
1
Self-Handicapping
388
1
Self-Actualization and Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives
389
7
Characteristics of Frequent Self-Actualizers
392
2
The Peak Experience
394
2
Existential Psychology
396
2
The Existential Dilemma
396
1
Emptiness and Loneliness
397
1
Assessment
398
3
Interviews in Assessment
398
1
The Q-Sort and Measurement of the Self-Concept
399
1
Measurement of Self-Actualization
400
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
401
3
Client-Centered Therapy
403
1
Encounter Groups
404
1
Beyond Therapy, to Personal Growth
404
1
Humanistic Theories: Problems and Prospects
404
3
Summary
407
3
Personal Constructs
410
25
Personal Constructs and Personality
412
14
Using Constructs
413
1
Constructs Are Bipolar
414
1
The Role of Recurrences
415
1
Range and Focus of Convenience
416
1
Elaboration and Change in Construct Systems
416
2
Organization among Constructs
418
3
Individuality of Constructs
421
1
Similarities and Differences between People
422
1
Role Taking
423
2
Personal Constructs and Behavioral Consistency
425
1
Assessment
426
2
Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test
426
2
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
428
4
Personal Constructs and Psychological Distress
428
1
Dealing with Anxiety and Threat
429
1
Fixed Role Therapy
430
2
Personal Construct Theory: Problems and Prospects
432
1
Summary
432
3
PART EIGHT The Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspective
435
60
Prologue: The Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions
436
1
Contemporary Cognitive Views
437
29
Representing Your Experience of the World
440
13
Schemas and Their Development
440
1
Manifestations of Schemas
441
1
Socially Relevant Schemas
442
1
Self-Schemas
443
3
Entity and Incremental Schemas
446
1
Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory, and Scripts
447
2
Attribution
449
2
Activation and Use of Memories
451
2
Broader Statements on Cognition and Personality
453
3
Cognitive Person Variables
453
3
Social Intelligence
456
1
Assessment
456
4
Think-Aloud and Thought Sampling
457
1
Self-Monitoring
458
1
Diagnostic Categories as Prototypes
459
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
460
3
Information Processing Deficits
460
1
Depressive Self-Schemas
460
2
Cognitive Therapy
462
1
Contemporary Cognitive Theories: Problems and Prospects
463
1
Summary
464
2
Self-Regulation
466
29
From Cognition to Behavior
468
4
Schemas for Action
468
2
Behavioral Intentions
470
1
Goals
471
1
Goal Setting
472
1
Self-Regulation and Feedback Control
472
13
Feedback Control
472
2
Self-Directed Attention and the Action of the Comparator
474
2
Hierarchical Organization
476
3
Issues Concerning Hierarchical Organization
479
1
Research on Hierarchies of Behavior
480
2
Emotion
482
1
Effects of Expectancies: Effort versus Disengagement
483
2
Assessment
485
2
Assessment of Self-Regulatory Qualities
485
2
Assessment of Goals
487
1
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
487
5
Problems as Conflicts among Goals, and Lack of Goal Specifications
487
2
Problems from an Inability to Disengage
489
1
Self-Regulation and the Process of Therapy
490
1
Therapy Is Dynamic
491
1
Self-Regulation Theories: Problems and Prospects
492
1
Summary
493
2
PART NINE Personality in Perspective
495
20
Overlap and Integration
496
19
Similarities among Perspectives
498
11
Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: The Structural Model
498
1
Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: Fixations and Mating Patterns
499
1
Psychoanalysis and Conditioning
499
1
Psychoanalysis and Self-Regulation: The Structural Model
500
1
Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Processes
501
2
Social Learning and Cognitive Self-Regulation Views
503
3
Neoanalytic and Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspectives
506
1
Maslow's Hierarchy and Hierarchies of Self-Regulation
507
1
Self-Actualization and Self-Regulation
508
1
Dispositions and Their Equivalents in Other Models
508
1
Recurrent Themes, Viewed from Different Angles
509
1
Impulse and Restraint
509
1
Individual versus Group Needs
509
1
Combining Perspectives
510
3
Eclecticism
510
1
An Example: Biology and Learning as Complementary Influences on Personality
511
1
Which Theory Is Best?
512
1
Summary
513
2
References
515
60
Name Index
575
12
Subject Index
587