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Tables of Contents for Introduction to Learning Disabilities
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xi
PART ONE: THE FIELD OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
1
58
1 Ongoing Issues and Themes
1
34
What Is Learning Disabilities Like as a Field of Study?
3
3
Interdisciplinary, International, and Multicultural
3
2
Research Based: Both Basic and Applied and Quantitative and Qualitative
5
1
How Has Learning Disability Been Defined?
6
4
Kirk's Definition (1962)
7
1
Bateman's Definition (1965)
8
1
Task Forces I and II Definitions (1966, 1969)
8
2
National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children Definition (1968)
10
1
How Is Learning Disability Defined Today?
10
5
U.S. Office of Education Definition (1977)
10
2
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Definition (1981)
12
1
Learning Disabilities Association of America Definition (1986)
12
1
Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities Definition (1987)
13
1
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Revised Definition (1988)
13
1
Individuals with Learning Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Reauthorized Definition (1997)
14
1
The Two Most Popular Definitions: USOE and NJCLD
14
1
How Well Do Test Score Discrepancies Indicate Learning Disabilities?
15
4
Objections to Ability-Achievement Discrepancy
16
1
Objections to Use of Formulas
17
1
The Future of the Learning Disabilities Definition
18
1
To What Extent Is Learning Disability a Social Construct?
19
1
What Characteristics Should Be Included in the Category of Learning Disabilities?
20
3
Wide Interindividual Differences
21
1
Wide Intraindividual Differences
21
1
Association with Other Disabilities
22
1
Can Learning Disabilities Be Overcome?
23
1
How Can the Impact of a Learning Disability Be Lessened?
23
1
How Many People with Learning Disabilities Are There?
24
4
Who Are People with Learning Disabilities, and What Is Their Representation?
28
4
Ethnicity
28
3
Gender
31
1
Summary
32
3
2 Causes
35
24
What Causes Learning Disabilities?
36
5
Historical Context
36
1
Reluctance to Accept Neurological Causes
37
2
Toward an Acceptance of Neurological Causes
39
2
How Does the Brain Function?
41
7
Neurons Send and Receive Messages
41
1
Different Parts of the Brain Have Different Functions
42
4
Left and Right Hemispheres
46
2
How Can We Infer Neurological Dysfunction in Children?
48
3
Research on Brain Lateralization
49
1
Right-Hemisphere Brain Dysfunction
50
1
What Factors Contribute to Neurological Dysfunction?
51
5
Hereditary Factors
51
3
Teratogenic Factors
54
1
Medical Factors
55
1
Environmental Factors
55
1
What Should Educators Keep in Mind Regarding Causes?
56
1
Summary
56
3
PART TWO: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
59
95
3 Educational Approaches
59
32
Why Understand Educational Models of Learning Disabilities?
60
1
What Educational Models Were Applied in the Past?
61
3
Medical Approaches
61
1
Diagnostic-Remedial Approaches
62
1
Behavioral Approaches
62
1
Influences of Historical Models
63
1
How Is Behavioral Theory Applied?
64
6
Applied Behavior Analysis
64
1
Task Analysis
64
1
Direct Instruction
65
5
How Is Cognitive Theory Applied?
70
5
Information Processing
71
2
Metacognition
73
1
Cognitive-Behavior Modification
74
1
Mnemonic Instruction
74
1
How Is Constructivist Theory Applied?
75
5
Authentic Tasks and Experiences
78
1
Socially Mediated Learning
79
1
What Does Research Tell about Effective Practices?
80
4
How Do Educational Models Relate to Contemporary Practice?
84
5
Points of Difference
84
2
Shared Emphases
86
3
Summary
89
2
4 Assessment
91
36
What Are the Purposes of Assessment?
92
2
What Are Two General Approaches to Assessment?
94
2
Trait Assessment Approach
94
2
Direct Measurement Approach
96
3
What Are the Domains of Assessment?
96
3
Language Abilities
97
1
Mathematics Abilities
98
1
Cognitive Abilities
98
1
Social Skills
98
1
Environmental Factors
99
1
What Are Some Assessment Strategies?
99
15
Neuropsychological Assessment
100
1
Contextual Assessment
101
1
Standardized Testing
102
3
Teacher-Made Tests
105
1
Curriculum-Based Assessment
106
1
Behavioral Assessment
107
1
Interactive Assessment
108
1
Authentic Assessment
109
5
What Are Some Issues in Assessment?
114
10
Legal Issues
115
8
Ethical Issues
123
1
Summary
124
3
5 Service Delivery Models
127
27
What Laws Govern the Delivery of Special Education?
128
6
Influence of IDEA on Service Delivery
128
6
How Is Special Education Defined?
134
4
Definition and Practice of Special Education
135
2
Related Services
137
1
Continuum of Alternative Placements
137
1
What Are Some Service Delivery Models?
138
6
Collaborative Consultation in the General Education Classroom
139
1
Co-teaching in the General Education Classroom
139
1
Special Education Resource Room
140
1
Self-Contained Special Education Classroom
141
1
Special Day School
141
2
Residential School
143
1
What Are Some Issues in Service Delivery?
144
3
Teaching Students in Inclusive Settings
145
1
Maintaining a Continuum of Alternative Placements
146
1
What Is the Effectiveness of Service Delivery Models?
147
4
Research Issues
148
2
Final Note on Service Delivery
150
1
Summary
151
3
PART THREE: DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING DISABILITIES
154
79
6 Parents and Families
154
28
How Have Professionals' Views of Parents Changed?
155
2
Reciprocal Effects
156
1
Individualized Family Service Plans
156
1
What Treatment Models Are Used with Families?
157
2
Family Systems Approach
157
2
Social Support Systems Approach
159
1
What Are Some Current Trends in American Family Life?
159
5
Family Unit
160
1
Race, Ethnicity, and Language
160
3
Socioeconomic Status
163
1
What Is the Family's Role?
164
8
Family Adjustment
164
2
Family Values and Attitudes toward Learning
166
1
Parents and Homework
167
5
Parents as Advocates
172
1
How Can Communication Be Enhanced between the Family and Professionals?
172
4
Parent-Teacher Conferences
173
3
School-Home Note Programs
176
1
How Can Parents Use the Internet and World Wide Web as Resources?
176
3
Summary
179
3
7 Prevention and Intervention in Early Childhood
182
24
How Can Learning Disabilities Be Prevented?
183
5
Addressing Risk Factors in Infancy and Early Childhood
186
1
Distinguishing Disabilities from Cultural Differences
187
1
How Are Learning Disabilities Identified in Infancy and Early Childhood?
188
4
Two Approaches to Early Identification
190
1
Promises and Pitfalls of Early Identification
191
1
How Is Early Childhood Intervention Provided?
192
5
Popular Early Intervention Programs
193
1
Legal Requirements of Early Intervention
194
1
Evaluating Early Childhood Program Quality
195
2
What Are Some Trends and Controversies in Early Childhood Education?
197
6
Inclusive Education
198
1
Developmentally Appropriate Practices
198
1
Alternative Assessment
199
1
Education for Transition
200
1
Family-Based Education
200
3
Summary
203
3
8 Transition Programming in Adolescence and Adulthood
206
27
What Are Learning Disability Outcomes across the Life Span?
208
1
Higher Dropout Rates
208
1
Higher Underemployment
208
1
Greater Dependency on Others
209
1
What Transition Programs and Services Are Available?
209
4
Federal Initiatives
209
1
Interagency Collaboration and Service Delivery
210
1
Social Skills and Self-Advocacy Training
211
1
Parental Involvement
211
2
Vocational Training and College Preparation
213
1
How Are Students with Learning Disabilities Prepared for College?
213
2
Programming Goals for College Preparation
214
1
How Can Students with Learning Disabilities Succeed in College?
215
4
Guidelines for Choosing a College
216
1
Predictors of Success in College
216
2
Instructional Accommodations
218
1
How Can Students with Learning Disabilities Prepare for the Work World?
219
2
Programming Goals for Vocational Training
220
1
School-Business Partnerships
221
1
How Can Employers Encourage Success for Adults with Learning Disabilities?
221
4
Workplace Accommodations
222
3
How Can Employees with Learning Disabilities Succeed in the Workplace?
225
5
Choose a Job That Is a Good Match
226
1
Use Personal Contacts to Find a Job
226
1
Become a Self-Advocate
226
1
Develop Compensatory Strategies
227
1
Take Advantage of Technology
228
1
Gain Control over One's Life
229
1
Summary
230
3
PART FOUR: STRATEGIES FOR HELPING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES ADJUST AND ADAPT
233
57
9 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems
233
30
What Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems Sometimes Coexist with Learning Disabilities?
235
4
Problems of Social Competence
236
2
Conduct Problems
238
1
Other Emotional or Behavioral Problems
239
1
What Causes Emotional and Behavioral Problems?
239
2
How Are Emotional and Behavioral Problems Assessed?
241
10
Systematic Screening
242
2
Prereferral, Referral, Observations, and Record Keeping
244
1
Confirmation of Eligibility
245
1
Including Behavior Problems in the IEP
245
5
Special Discipline Considerations
250
1
What Interventions Can Help with Emotional and Behavioral Problems?
251
9
Modifying the Learning Environment for Proactive Management
252
3
Teaching Desired Behavior
255
3
Discouraging Undesired Behavior
258
2
Summary
260
3
10 Cognitive, Metacognitive, Motivational, and Attention Problems
263
27
What Cognitive and Metacognitive Problems Sometimes Occur with Learning Disabilities?
264
5
Early Research--Cognitive Styles
265
1
Recent Cognitive Research--Memory Abilities
266
1
Metacognitive Problems
267
2
How Can Cognitive and Metacognitive Needs Be Addressed?
269
6
Self-Instruction
269
2
Self-Monitoring of Academic Performance
271
1
Mnemonic Strategies
272
1
Metamemory Training
273
1
Metacomprehension Training
274
1
Scaffolded Instruction
274
1
What Motivational Problems Occur and What Can Be Done about Them?
275
2
External Locus of Control
275
1
Negative Attributions
275
1
Learned Helplessness
276
1
Strategies for Improving Motivation
276
1
What Attention Problems Sometimes Occur with Learning Disabilities?
277
7
Early Work--Strauss Syndrome
278
1
Selective Attention and Maintaining Attention
278
1
More Recent Work--Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
279
5
How Can Problems of Attention Be Addressed in the Classroom?
284
3
Stimulus Reduction and Structure
284
1
Functional Assessment
285
1
Cognitive Training
285
2
Summary
287
3
PART FIVE: STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES IN KEY CONTENT AREAS
290
155
11 Teaching Students with Oral Language Problems
290
37
What Are the Major Dimensions of Language?
292
5
Reception
292
1
Expression
292
2
Phonology
294
1
Syntax
294
2
Morphology
296
1
Semantics
296
1
Pragmatics
297
1
How Does Language Develop Normally?
297
2
What Are the Characteristics of Students with Oral Language Problems?
299
6
Problems with Reception and Expression
300
1
Problems with Language Systems
301
4
How Are Oral Language Abilities Assessed?
305
8
Comprehensive Assessments
306
4
Specific Assessments
310
2
Methods of Monitoring Progress
312
1
How Can Oral Language Problems Be Addressed?
313
12
Theoretical Approaches
313
5
Psycholinguistic Interventions
318
3
Task-Analytic Interventions
321
2
Effective Practices
323
2
Summary
325
2
12 Teaching Students with Reading Problems
327
41
What Are the Characteristics of Students with Reading Problems?
329
9
Problems with Reading Performance
330
3
Problems with Aspects of Language
333
5
What Is the Prevalence of Students with Reading Difficulties?
338
1
How Is Reading Performance Assessed?
339
9
Comprehensive Measures
339
1
Diagnosing Problems and Planning Programs
340
6
Monitoring Student Progress
346
2
How Should Beginning Literacy Be Taught?
348
9
Code-Emphasis Approach
350
1
Whole-Language Approach
351
1
Effectiveness of Beginning Reading Approaches
352
3
Emerging Synthesis in Beginning Reading Instruction
355
1
Promoting Phonological Awareness
356
1
How Should Reading Problems Be Corrected?
357
9
Traditional Approaches
357
2
Current Remedial Reading Instruction
359
3
Instructional Strategies
362
4
Summary
366
2
13 Teaching Students with Writing Problems
368
45
What Handwriting Problems Do Students Experience?
370
2
Problems with Letter Formation
370
1
Problems with Fluency
371
1
Causes and Effects of Handwriting Problems
372
1
How Is Handwriting Performance Assessed?
372
4
Planning Handwriting Instruction
374
1
Monitoring Handwriting Progress
374
2
What Interventions Can Help with Handwriting Difficulties?
376
4
Developmental Interventions
377
1
Technology
378
1
Effective Teaching Procedures
379
1
What Spelling Problems Do Students Experience?
380
4
Spelling Errors
382
2
Effects of Spelling Problems
384
1
How Is Spelling Performance Assessed?
384
4
Standardized Assessment
385
1
Planning Spelling Instruction
386
1
Monitoring Progress in Spelling
387
1
What Interventions Help Students' Spelling Difficulties?
388
8
Developmental Interventions
388
4
Remedial Interventions
392
1
Technology
393
1
Effective Teaching Procedures
394
2
What Composition Problems Do Students Experience?
396
2
How Is Composition Performance Assessed?
398
3
Screening
399
1
Planning Composition Instruction
399
1
Monitoring Progress in Composition
400
1
What Interventions Help Students with Composition Difficulties?
401
9
Developmental Interventions
402
2
Remedial Interventions
404
1
Technology
404
1
Effective Teaching Procedures
405
5
Summary
410
3
14 Teaching Students with Mathematics Problems
413
32
How Does Mathematical Knowledge Develop Normally?
414
4
What Problems in Mathematics Do Students Experience?
418
5
Problems in Cognitive Development
419
1
Problems in Arithmetic Performance
420
3
How Are Mathematics Abilities Assessed?
423
8
Achievement Tests
424
1
Formal Diagnostic Testing
424
2
Informal Inventories
426
1
Error Analysis
426
1
Monitoring Progress
427
4
What Interventions Help Students with Mathematics Difficulties?
431
11
Developmental Interventions
433
2
Remedial Interventions
435
1
Technology
435
3
Effective Teaching Procedures
438
4
Summary
442
3
Glossary
445
8
References
453
46
Name Index
499
10
Subject Index
509