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Tables of Contents for Educational Psychology
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Student Preface
xvii
1 Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
2
20
OVERVIEW
3
1
What Would You Do?
4
1
WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING
4
4
Inside Five Classrooms
5
2
A Bilingual First Grade
A Suburban Sixth Grade
An Inner-City Middle School
Two Advanced Math Classes
Expert Knowledge
7
1
TEACHING: ARTISTRY, TECHNIQUE AND A LOT OF WORK
8
1
Concerns of Beginning Teachers
8
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Whose Classroom Is It Anyway?
9
2
What About the Students?
10
1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
11
5
Is It Just Common Sense?
11
2
Taking Turns
Classroom Management
Skipping Grades
Using Research to Understand and Improve Teaching
13
3
Descriptive Research
Correlations
Experimentation
Theories for Teaching
THE CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK
16
3
A Quick Tour of the Topics
16
1
How This Book Can Help You Learn
17
2
Getting Ready to Learn
Aids to Understanding
Applying Knowledge
Becoming a Good Beginning Teacher
SUMMARY
19
1
KEY TERMS
19
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
20
2
Part One Human Development: A Framework for Teachers
22
88
2 Cognitive Developement and Language
22
42
OVERVIEW
23
1
What Would You Do?
24
1
A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
24
3
General Principles of Development
25
1
The Brain and Cognitive Development
25
2
PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
27
12
Influences on Development
27
1
Basic Tendencies in Thinking
28
1
Organization
Adaptation
Equilibration
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
29
10
Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage
Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage
Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage
Junior and Senior High: Formal Operations
Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?
IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET'S THEORY FOR TEACHERS
39
3
Understanding Students' Thinking
39
1
Matching Strategies to Abilities
40
1
Construction Knowledge
40
1
Some Limitations of Piaget's Theory
41
1
The Trouble with Stages
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Can Cognitive Development Be Accelerated?
42
2
Underestimating Childern's Abilities
Cognitive Development and Information Processing
Cognitive Development and Culture
VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
44
3
The Role of Language and Private Speech
45
2
Vygotsky's and Piaget's Views Compared
Self-Talk and Learning
The Role of Adults and Peers
47
1
IMPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY'S THEORY FOR TEACHERS
47
4
Assisted Learning
48
1
The Zone of Proximal Development
49
2
Assessment
Teaching
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE
51
6
How Do We Learn Language?
51
1
Stages in the Process of Language Acquisition
52
2
First Words
First Sentences
Learning Grammar
Learning Vocabulary
Language Development in the School Years
54
3
Pronunciation
Syntax
Vocabulary and Meaning
Pragmatics
Metalinguistic Awareness
LANGUAGE, LITERACY, AND TEACHING
57
3
Teachers and Literacy
58
1
Partnerships with Families
58
2
SUMMARY
60
1
KEY TERMS
61
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
61
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
62
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Preoperational Child
33
31
Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child
36
3
Helping Students to Use Formal Operations
39
11
Applying Vygotsky's Ideas in Teaching
50
9
Family and Community Partnerships for Literacy Programs
59
5
3 Personal, Social, and Emotional Development
64
46
OVERVIEW
65
1
What Would You Do?
66
1
THE WORK OF ERIKSON
66
7
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
67
2
Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority
69
1
Adolescence: The Search for Identity
70
2
Identity Statuses
Beyond the School Years
72
1
UNDERSTANDING OURSELVES AND OTHERS
73
7
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
73
2
How Self-Concept Develops
School Life and Self-Esteem
75
1
Gender, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem
76
3
Gender and Self-Esteem
Personal and Collective Self-Esteem
The Self and Others
79
1
Intention
Taking the Perspective of Others
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
80
7
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
81
2
Alternatives to Kohlberg's Theory
83
1
Social Conventions versus Moral Issues
Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning
The Morality of Caring
84
3
Empathy
Friendships
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Values?
87
4
A Curriculum of Caring
Moral Behavior
89
2
Cheating
Aggression
SCIALIZATION: THE HOME AND THE SCHOOL
91
7
American Families Today
92
4
Growing Up Too Fast
Developmentally Appropriate Preschools
Children of Divorce
New Roles for Teachers
96
2
CHALLENGES FOR CHILDREN
98
8
Physical Development
98
2
The Preschool Years
Elementary School
Adolescence
Children and Youth at Risk
100
6
Child Abuse
Teenage Sexuality and Pregnancy
Eating Disorders
Drug Abuse
AIDS
Suicide
SUMMARY
106
1
KEY TERMS
107
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
107
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
108
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Intiative in the Preschool Child
69
41
Encouraging Industry
70
2
Supporting Identity Formation
72
7
Family and Community Partnerships to Strengthen Student Self-Esteem
79
12
Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation
91
4
Helping Children of Divorce
95
2
Supporting Personal and Social Development
97
3
Dealing with Differences in Growth and Development
100
10
Part Two Individual Variations
110
92
4 Learning Abilities and Learning Problems
110
50
OVERVIEW
111
1
What Would You Do?
112
1
LANGUAGE AND LABELING
112
1
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
113
8
What Does Intellingence Mean?
113
5
Intelligence: One Ability or Many?
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence as a Process
How Is Intelligence Measured?
118
1
Binet's Dilemma
Group versus Individual IQ Tests
What Does an IQ Score Mean?
119
2
Intelligence and Achievement
Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?
ABILITY DIFFERNCES AND TEACHING
121
8
Ability Grouping
122
1
Between-Class Ability Grouping
Within-Class Ability Grouping
Mental Retardation
123
3
Gifted and Talented
126
3
Who Are the Gifted?
What Problems Do the Gifted Face?
Recognizing Students' Special Abilities
Giftedness and Formal Testing
Teaching Gifted Students
CREATIVITY
129
5
Creativity and Cognition
129
1
Assessing Creativity
130
1
Paper-and-Pencil Tests of Creativity
Teachers' Judgements of Creativity
Creativity in the Classroom
131
3
The Brainstorming Strategy
Take Your Time--and Play!
COGNITIVE AND LEARNING STYLES
134
2
Cognitive Styles
134
1
Field Dependence and Field Independence
Impulsive and Reflective Cognitive Styles
Learning Styles and Preferences
135
1
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING CHALLENGES
136
10
Students with Physical and Sensory Challenges
137
2
Siezure Disorders (Epilepsy)
Cerebral Palsy
Hearing Impairment
Vision Impairment
Communication Disorders
139
1
Speech Impairments
Language Disorders
Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
140
1
Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
141
1
Learning Disabilities
142
4
Students with Learning Disabilities
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
INTEGRATION, MAINSTREAMING, AND INCLUSION
146
1
Changes in the Law
146
1
Least Restrictive Placement
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Is Full Inclusion a Reasonable Approach to Teaching Exceptional Students?
147
7
Individual Education Program
The Rights of Students and Parents
Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms
148
5
Resource Rooms, Collaborative Consultation, and Cooperative Teaching
Making a Referral
Including Families
Computers and Exceptional Students
153
1
SUMMARY
154
2
KEY TERMS
156
1
CHECK YOUR UNDER STANDING
156
2
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
158
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores
120
40
Grouping by Achievement
123
2
Teaching Students with Mental Retardation
125
8
Encouraging Creativity
133
19
Family and Community Partnerships for Productive Conferences
152
8
5 The Impact of Culture and Community
160
42
OVERVIEW
161
1
What Would You Do?
162
1
TODAY'S MULTICULTURAL CLASSROOMS
162
2
Individuals, Groups, and Society
162
1
American Cultural Diversity
163
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Should Multicultural Education Emphasize Similarities or Differences?
164
2
Culture and Group Membership
Cautions in Interpreting Cultural Differences
SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENCES
166
4
Who Are the Poor?
167
1
SES and Achievement
167
3
Low Expectations--Low Self-Esteem
Learned Helplessness
Resistance Cultures
Tracking
Childrearing Styles
ETHNIC AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES
170
8
The Changing Demographics
171
1
Cultural Differences
171
3
Cultural Conflicts
Cultural Compatibility
Working with Families and Communities
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
174
1
The Legacy of Discrimination
175
3
Continuing Prejudice
The Development of Prejudice
Continuing Discrimination
WOMEN AND MEN: DIFEFRENCES IN THE CLASSROOM
178
7
Gender-Role Identity
178
4
Gender-Role Stereotyping in the Preschool Years
Gender Bias in the Curriculum
Sex Discrimination in Classrooms
Sex Differences in Mental Abilities
182
2
Sex and Mathematics
Eliminating Gender Bias
184
1
LANGUAGE DIFEFRENCES IN THE CLASSROOM
185
7
Dialects
185
2
Dialects and Language Skills
Dialects and Teaching
Bilingualism
187
5
What Does Bilingualism Mean?
Becoming Bilingual
Bilingual Education
Research on Bilingual Programs
CREATING CULTURALLY COMPATIBLE CLASSROOMS
192
6
Social Organization
192
1
Learning Styles
192
2
Hispanic Americans
African Americans
Native Americans
Asian Americans
Criticisms of Learning-Style Research
Sociolinguistics
194
1
Participation Structures
Sources of Misunderstandings
Bringing It All Together: Teaching Every Student
195
3
Know Your Students
Respect Your Students
Teach Your Students
SUMMARY
198
1
KEY TERMS
199
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
199
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
200
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships for Building Learning Communities
173
29
Avoiding Sexism in Teaching
185
2
Teaching Dialect-Dominant Students
187
10
Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms
197
5
Part Three Learning: Theory and Practice
202
168
6 Behavioral Views of Learning
202
42
OVERVIEW
203
1
What Would You Do?
204
1
UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
204
3
Learning: A Definition
204
1
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems
205
2
EARLY EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING: CONTIGUITY AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
207
1
Pavlov's Dilemma and Discovery: Classical Conditioning
207
1
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
208
1
OPERANT CONDITIONING: TRYING NEW RESPONSES
208
8
The Work of Thorndike and Skinner
209
1
Types of Consequences
210
2
Reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement Schedules
212
1
Summarizing the Effects of Reinforcement Schedules
213
1
Extinction
Antecedents and Behavior Change
214
2
Cueing
Prompting
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
216
9
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors
216
5
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle
Shaping
Positive Practice
Coping with Undesirable Behavior
221
4
Negative Reinforcement
Satiation
Reprimands
Response Cost
Social Isolation
Some Cautions
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
225
6
Elements of Social Cognitive Theory
225
1
Learning by Observing Others
226
1
Elements of Observational Learning
226
2
Attention
Retention
Production
Motivation and Reinforcement
Factors That Influence Observational Learning
228
1
Observational Learning in Teaching
228
3
Teaching New Behaviors
Encouraging Already-Learned Behaviors
Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions
Directing Attention
Arousing Emotion
SELF-REGULATION AND COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
231
5
Self-Management
232
3
Goal Setting
Recording and Evaluating Progress
Self-Reinforcement
Cognitive Behavior Modification and Self-Instruction
235
1
PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
236
2
Ethical Issues
237
1
Goals
Strategies
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods
237
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?
238
1
SUMMARY
239
1
KEY TERMS
240
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
240
2
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
242
GUIDELINES: Using Principles of Classical Conditioning
209
35
Using Praise Appropriately
217
3
Using Positive Reinforcement
220
4
Using Punishment
224
7
Family and Community Partnerships for Student Self-Management Programs
234
10
7 Cognitive Views of Learning
244
42
OVERVIEW
245
1
What Would You Do?
246
1
ELEMENTS OF THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
246
3
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views
247
1
The Importance of Knowledge in Learning
247
2
General and Specific Knowledge
Declarative, Procedural, and Conditional Knowledge
THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY
249
17
An Information Processing Model
249
1
Sensory Memory
250
4
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory
Perception
The Role of Attention
Attention and Teaching
Working Memory
254
3
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Working Memory
Retaining Information in Working Memory
Forgetting
Long-Term Memory
257
4
Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory
Contents of Long-Term Memory
Propositions and Propositional Networks
Images
Schemas
Episodic Memory
Procedural Memory
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory
261
5
Levels of Processing Theories
Retrieving Information from Long-Term Memory
Forgetting and Long-Term Memory
Connectionism: An Alternative View of Memory
266
1
METACOGNITION, REGULATION, AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
266
4
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation
267
1
Individual Differences in Metacognition
267
1
Individual Differences and Working Memory
268
1
Developmental Differences
Individual Differences
Individual Differences and Long-Term Memory
269
1
BECOMING KNOWLEDGEABLE: SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
270
3
Development of Declarative Knowledge
270
3
Rote Memorization
Mnemonics
POINT COUNTERPOINT: What's Wrong With Memorizing?
273
4
Making It Meaningful
Becoming an Expert: Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge
274
3
Automated Basic Skills
Domain-Specefic Strategies
Learning Outside School
CONSTRUCTIVISM AND SITUATED LEARNING: CHALLENGING SYMBOLIC PROCESSING MODELS
277
5
Constructivist Views of Learning
277
1
Types of Constructivism
Knowledge: Accuracy versus Usefulness
278
1
Situated Learning
279
3
SUMMARY
282
1
KEY TERMS
283
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
283
1
TEACHER'S CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
284
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention
253
33
Using Information Processing Ideas in the Classroom
265
11
Family and Community Partnerships for Students' Learning
276
10
8 Complex Cognitive Processes
286
42
OVERVIEW
287
1
What Would You Do?
288
1
THE IMPORTANCE OF THINKING AND UNDERSTANDING
288
1
LEARNING AND TEACHING ABOUT CONCEPTS
289
5
Views of Concept Learning
289
1
Prototypes and Exemplars
Concepts and Schemas
Strategies for Teaching Concepts
290
4
An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson
Lesson Components
Lesson Structure
Extending and Connecting Concepts
PROBLEM SOLVING
294
13
Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific?
295
1
A General Problem-Solving Strategy
295
1
Defining Golas and Representing the Problem
296
4
Focusing Attention
Understanding the Words
Understanding the Whole Problem
Translation and Schema Training
The Results of Problem Representation
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies
300
2
Algorithms
Heuristics
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back
301
1
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
302
2
Functional Fixedness
Response Set
The Importance of Flexibility
Effective Problem Solving: What Do the Experts Do?
304
3
Expert Knowledge
Expert Teachers
Novice Knowledge
BECOMING AN EXPERT STUDENT: LEARNING STRATEGIES AND STUDY SKILLS
307
7
Learning Strategies and Tactics
307
4
Underlining and Highlighting
Taking Notes
Visual Tools
311
1
PQ4R
311
3
TEACHING AND LEARNING ABOUT THINKING
314
2
Stand-Alone Programs for Developing Thinking
315
1
Developing Thinking in Every Class
315
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?
316
3
The Language of Thinking
Critical Thinking
Thinking as a "State of Mind"
TEACHING FOR TRANSFER
319
5
Defining Transfer
319
1
A Comtemporary View of Transfer
320
1
Teaching for Positive Transfer
321
3
What Is Worth Learning?
How Can Teachers Help?
Stages of Transfer for Strategies
SUMMARY
324
1
KEY TERMS
325
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
325
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
326
GUIDELINES: Problem Solving
306
22
Study Skills and Learing Strategies
313
10
Family and Community Partnerships for Encouraging Transfer
323
5
9 Learning and Instruction
328
42
OVERVIEW
329
1
What Would You Do?
330
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
330
8
Objectives for Learning
330
3
Mager: Start with the Specific
Gronlund: Start with the General
Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives
Are Objectives Useful?
333
1
Mastery Learning
334
1
Advantages and Problems
Direct Instruction
335
3
Rosenshine's Six Teaching Functions
Criticisms of Direct Instruction
COGNITIVE MODELS OF TEACHING
338
4
Discovery Learning
338
3
Structure and Discovery
Discovery in Action
Expository Teaching/Reception
Learning
341
1
Advance Organizers
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Is Discovery Learning Effective?
342
3
Steps in an Expository Lesson
Making the Most of Expository Teaching
The Instructional Events Model
345
1
CONSTRUCTIVIST AND SITUATED LEARNING
346
11
Elements of Constructivist Perspectives
346
2
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks
Social Negotiation
Multiple Representations of Content
Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
348
1
Group Work and Cooperation in Learning
349
6
Working in Groups
Beyond Groups to Cooperation
Elements of Cooperative Learning Groups
Setting up Cooperative Groups
Jigsaw
Reciprocal Questioning
Scripted Cooperation
What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning
Instructional Conversations
355
1
Cognitive Apprenticeships
355
2
COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES TO READING, MATHEMATICS, AND SCIENCE
357
9
Learning to Read and Write
357
3
Whole Language
Integrated Curriculum
Do Students Need Skills and Phinics?
Being Sensible about Reading and Writing
Reciprocal Teaching
360
2
An Example of Reciprocal Teaching
Applying Reciprocal Teaching
Learning and Teaching Mathematics
362
2
Learning Science
364
1
Working with Families
365
1
SUMMARY
366
1
KEY TERMS
367
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
367
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
368
GUIDELINES: Developing Instructional Objectives
333
37
Applying Bruner's Ideas in the Classroom
340
4
Applying Ausubel's Ideas in the Classroom
344
21
Family and Community Partnerships for Innovative Teaching Approaches
365
5
Part Four Motivation, Management, and Teaching
370
148
10 Motivation: Issues and Explanations
370
34
OVERVIEW
371
1
What Would You Do?
372
1
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
372
4
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
373
2
Four General Approaches to Motivation
375
1
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation
Humanistic Approaches to Motivation
POINT COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students' Self-Esteem?
376
3
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
Social Learning Approaches to Motivation
Motivation to Learn in School
378
1
GOALS AND MOTIVATION
379
3
Types of Goals
379
1
Feedback and Goal Acceptance
380
2
Goals: Lessons for Teachers
382
1
NEEDS AND MOTIVATION
382
5
Maslow's Hierarchy
382
2
Achievment Motivation
384
1
The Need for Self-Determination
385
1
The Need for Relatedness
386
1
Needs and Motivation: Lessons for Teachers
386
1
ATTRIBUTIONS, BELIEFS, AND MOTIVATION
387
9
Attribution Theory
387
3
Dimensions: Locus, Stability, Responsibility
Learned Helplessness
Attributions and Student Motivation
Cues about Causes
Beliefs about Ability
390
2
Beliefs about Self-Efficacy
392
2
Efficacy and Motivation
Teacher Efficacy
Attributions, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Worth
394
1
Attributions and Beliefs: Lessons for Teachers
395
1
ANXIETY AND COPING IN THE CLASSROOM
396
3
What Causes Anxiety at School?
397
1
Helping Anxious Students
397
1
Anxiety: Lessons for Teachers
398
1
SUMMARY
399
1
KEY TERMS
400
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
401
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
402
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships for Setting Goals
381
23
Supporting Autonomy and Self-Determination
385
11
Encouraging Students' Self-Worth
396
2
Dealing with Anxiety
398
6
11 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning
404
34
OVERVIEW
405
1
What Would You Do?
406
1
AN ULTIMATE GOAL OF TEACHING: LIFELONG LEARNING
406
3
Self-Regulated Learning
406
2
Knowledge
Motivation
Volition
On TARGETT for Self-Regulated Learning
408
1
TASKS FOR LEARNING
409
5
Tapping Interests and Arousing Curiosity
410
1
Task Operations: Risk and Ambiguity
411
1
Task Value
412
2
SUPPORTING AUTONOMY AND RECOGNIZING ACCOMPLISHMENT
414
2
Advantages of Autonomy in the Classroom
414
1
Information and Control
414
1
Autonomy Supporting Class Climates
415
1
Recognizing Accomplishment
416
1
GROUPING, EVALUATION, AND TIME
416
5
Grouping and Goal Structures
417
3
STAD
TGT
Evaluation
420
1
Time
421
1
TEACHER EXPECTATIONS
421
1
Two Kinds of Expectation Effects
421
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Do Teachers' Expectations Affect Students' Learning?
422
5
Sources of Expectations
423
1
Teacher Behavior and Student Reaction
423
4
Instructional Strategies
Teacher-Student Interactions
STRATEGIES TO ENCOURAGE MOTIVATION AND THOUGHTFUL LEARNING
427
7
Necessary Conditions in Classrooms
427
1
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations
427
1
Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning
428
2
Attainment and Intrinsic Value
Instrumental Value
What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task
430
2
How Do Beginning Teachers Motivate Students?
432
1
Student's Views of Motivation
433
1
SUMMARY
434
1
KEY TERMS
435
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
435
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
436
GUIDELINES: Supporting Autonomy in the Classroom
415
23
Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations
425
6
Family and Community Partnership to Encourage Motivation to Learn
431
7
12 Creating Learning Environments
438
40
OVERVIEW
439
1
What Would You Do?
440
1
THE NEED FOR ORGANIZATION
440
5
The Ecology of Classrooms
440
2
Characteristics of Classrooms
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation
Age-Related Needs
The Goals of Classroom Management
442
3
More Time for Learning
Access to Learning
Management for Self-Management
CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
445
10
Some Research Results
445
1
Rules and Procedures Required
445
4
Procedures
Rules
Rules for Elementary School
Rules for Secondary School
Consequences
Planned Spaces for Learning
449
5
Interest-Area Arrangements
Personal Territories
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class
454
1
Effective Managers for Elementary Students
Effective Managers for Secondary Students
MAINTAINING A GOOD ENVIRONMENT FOR LEARNING
455
6
Encouraging Engagement
455
2
Prevention Is the Best Medicine
457
2
Withitness
Overlapping and Group Focus
Movement Management
Dealing with Discipline Problems
459
1
Special Problems with Secondary Students
460
1
SPECIAL PROGRAMS FOR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
461
2
Group Consequences
461
1
Token Reinforcement Programs
462
1
Contingency Contract Programs
463
1
THE NEED FOR COMMUNICATION
463
6
Message Sent--Message Received
464
1
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It?
465
1
Counseling: The Student's Problem
466
1
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline
467
2
"I" Messages
Assertive Discipline
Confrontations and Negotiations
POINT COUNTERPOINT: Does Assertive Discipline Work?
469
5
Student Conflicts and Confrontations
470
3
Conflicts: Goals and Needs
Violence in the Schools
Peer Mediation
Communicating with Families about Classroom Management
473
1
SUMMARY
474
1
KEY TERMS
474
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
475
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
476
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Procedures
446
32
Designing Learning Spaces
451
5
Keeping Students Engaged
456
3
Imposing Penalties
459
14
Family and Community Partnerships for Classroom Management
473
5
13 Teaching for Learning
478
40
OVERVIEW
479
1
What Would You Do?
480
1
THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING
480
8
Flexible and Creative Plans--Using Taxonomies
481
3
The Cognitive Domain
The Affective Domain
The Psychomotor Domain
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
484
4
An Example of Constructive Planning
Integrated and Thematic Plans
Assessment
TEACHING: WHOLE GROUP AND DIRECTIVE
488
6
Lecturing and Explaining
488
1
Recitation and Questioning
489
3
Kinds of Questions
Fitting the Questions to the Students
Responding to Student Answers
Seatwork and Homework
492
2
TEACHING: SMALL GROUP AND STUDENT-CENTERED
494
8
An Example of Constructivist Teaching
495
1
Group Discussion
496
2
Humanistic Education
498
1
Computers, Videodiscs, and Beyond
498
4
Computers as Learning Environments
Computers and Learning
Videodiscs
SUCCESSFUL TEACHING: FOCUS ON THE TEACHER
502
4
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
503
3
Teachers' Knowledge
Organization and Clarity
Planning for Clarity
Clarity during the Lesson
Warmth and Enthusiasm
Putting It All Together: The Effective Teacher
506
1
SUCCESSFUL UNDERSTANDING: FOCUS ON THE STUDENT
506
2
The New Zealand Studies
507
1
Some Findings
Conditions for Learning from Teaching
Learning Functions: The Effective Student
508
1
INTEGRATIONS: BEYOND MODELS TO OUTSTANDING TEACHING
508
2
Matching Methods to Learning Goals
508
2
POINT COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Help Students at Risk of Failing?
510
4
APA's Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
511
3
SUMMARY
514
1
KEY TERMS
515
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
515
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
516
GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships for Homework
494
24
Leading Class Discussions
497
4
Using Computers and Other Technology
501
4
Teaching Effectively
505
13
Part Five Assessing Student Learning
518
14 Standardized Testing
518
36
OVERVIEW
519
1
What Would You Do?
520
1
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
520
3
Norm-Referenced Tests
521
1
Criterion-Referenced Tests
521
2
WHAT DO TEST SCORES MEAN?
523
9
Basic Concepts
523
3
Frequency Distributions
Measurement of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation
The Normal Distribution
Types of Scores
526
3
Percentile Rank Scores
Grade-Equivalent Scores
Standard Scores
Interpreting Test Scores
529
3
Reliability
True Score
Confidence Interval
Validity
TYPES OF STANDARDIZED TESTS
532
7
Achievement Tests: What Has the Student Learned?
533
3
Using Information from a Norm-Referenced Achievement Test
Interpreting Achievement Test Scores
Diagnostic Tests: What Are the Student's Strengths and Weaknesses?
536
1
Aptitude Tests: How Well Will the Student Do in the Future?
537
2
Scholastic Aptitude
IQ and Scholastic Aptitude
Discussing Test Results with Families
ISSUES IN STANDARDIZED TESTING
539
2
The Uses of Testing in American Society
539
2
Readiness Testing
POINT COUNTERPOINT: To Test or Not to Test?
541
6
Minimum and World-Class Standards
Testing Teachers
Advantages in Taking Tests--Fair and Unfair
544
3
Bias in Testing
Coaching and Test-Taking Skills
NEW DIRECTIONS IN STANDARDIZED TESTING
547
2
Assessing Learning Potential
547
1
Authentic Assessment
548
1
SUMMARY
549
1
KEY TERMS
550
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
551
1
TEACHERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
552
GUIDELINES: Increasing Test Reliability and Validity
533
21
Family and Community Partnerships for Discussinng Standardized Test Results
538
8
Taking a Test
546
8
15 Classroom Assessment and Grading
554
OVERVIEW
555
1
What Would You Do?
556
1
FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
556
2
GETTING THE MOST FROM TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT APPROACHES
558
8
Planning for Testing
558
2
Using a Behavior-Content Matrix
When to Test?
Judging Textbook Tests
Objective Testing
560
3
Using Multiple-Choice Tests
Writing Multiple-Choice Questions
Evaluating Objective Test Items
563
1
Essay Testing
564
2
Constructing Essay Tests
Evaluating Essays: Dangers
Evlauating Essays: Methods
INNOVATIONS IN ASSESSMENT
566
1
POINT COUNTERPOINT: To Test or Not to Test, Part II
567
8
Authentic Classroom Tests
568
1
Performance in Context: Portfolios and Exhibitions
568
4
Portfolios
Exhibitions
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances
572
3
Scoring Rubrics
Reliability, Validity, and Equity
EFFECTS OF GRADES AND GRADING ON STUDENTS
575
3
Effects of Failure
575
1
Effects of Feedback
576
1
Grades and Motivation
577
1
GRADING AND REPORTING: NUTS AND BOLTS
578
9
Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Grading
578
3
Criterion-Referenced Systems
Norm-Referenced Systems
Preparing Report Cards
581
1
The Point System
582
1
Percentage Grading
583
1
The Contract System and Grading Rubrics
584
1
Grading on Effort and Improvement
585
1
Cautions: Being Fair
586
1
BEYOND GRADING: COMMUNICATION
587
3
SUMMARY
590
1
KEY TERMS
590
1
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
591
1
TEAHCERS' CASEBOOK: What Would They Do?
592
GUIDELINES: Writing Objective Test Items
561
Creating Portfolios
571
6
Minimizing the Detrimental Effects of Grading
577
9
Using Any Grading System
586
3
Family and Community Partnerships for Successful Parent-Teacher Conferences
589
GLOSSARY
G-1
REFERENCES
R-1
NAME INDEX
I-1
SUBJECT INDEX
I-10