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Tables of Contents for Bumblebees
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
1. Introduction
1
10
1.1 Evolution and Phylogeny
2
2
1.2 The Life Cycle
4
7
2. Thermoregulation
11
8
2.1 Warming Up
11
2
2.2 Controlling Heat Loss
13
2
2.3 Thermoregulation of the Nest
15
4
3. Social organization and conflict
19
22
3.1 Caste Determination
19
3
3.2 Division of Labour
22
8
3.3 Sex Determination
30
1
3.4 Control of Reproduction and Queen-Worker Conflicts
31
5
3.4.1 Timing of reproduction
33
2
3.4.2 Matricide
35
1
3.5 Sex-ratios in Bombus
36
3
3.6 Sex-ratios in Psithyrus
39
2
4. Finding a mate
41
12
4.1 Territoriality
41
1
4.2 Nest Surveillance
42
1
4.3 Scent-marking and Patrolling
42
3
4.4 Inbreeding Avoidance
45
1
4.5 Evolution of Male Mate-location Behaviour
46
1
4.6 Queen-produced Sex Attractants
46
1
4.7 Monogamy versus Polyandry
47
6
5. Natural enemies
53
16
5.1 True Predators
53
2
5.2 Parasitoids
55
3
5.2.1 Conopidae (Diptera)
55
2
5.2.2 Sarcophagidae (Diptera)
57
1
5.2.3 Braconidae (Hymenoptera)
57
1
5.2.4 Mutilidae (Hymenoptera)
58
1
5.3 Parasites and Commensals
58
6
5.3.1 Viruses
58
1
5.3.2 Prokaryotes (bacteria and others)
58
1
5.3.3 Fungi
59
1
5.3.4 Protozoa
59
2
5.3.5 Nematodes
61
2
5.3.6 Mites (Acarina)
63
1
5.3.7 Other commensals
64
1
5.4 The Immune System of Bumblebees
64
1
5.5 Social Parasitism
65
8
5.5.1 Nest usurpation
65
1
5.5.2 Cuckoo bees (Psithyrus)
66
3
6. Foraging economics
69
4
7. Foraging range
73
10
7.1 Studies with Marked Bees
74
1
7.2 Homing Experiments
74
3
7.3 Harmonic Radar
77
1
7.4 Modelling Maximum Foraging Range
78
1
7.5 So Why do not Bumblebees Forage Close to their Nests?
79
4
8. Exploitation of patchy resources
83
12
8.1 The Ideal Free Distribution
84
4
8.1.1 Search patterns within patches
84
3
8.1.2 Non-random choice of patches
87
1
8.2 The Marginal Value Theorem
88
7
9. Choice of flower species
95
12
9.1 Flower Constancy
96
9
9.1.1 Explanations for flower constancy
97
5
9.1.2 Can flowers be cryptic?
102
3
9.2 Infidelity in Flower Choice
105
2
10. Intraspecific floral choices
107
6
10.1 Direct Detection of Rewards
107
1
10.2 Flower Size
108
1
10.3 Flower Age
108
1
10.4 Flower Sex
109
1
10.5 Flower Symmetry
110
1
10.6 Other Factors
110
3
11. Communication during foraging
113
10
12. Competition in bumblebee communities
123
6
13. Bumblebees as pollinators
129
14
13.1 Pollination of Crops
129
8
13.1.1 Honeybees versus bumblebees
130
2
13.1.2 Approaches to enhancing bumblebee pollination
132
5
13.2 Pollination of Wild Flowers
137
6
13.2.1 Nectar robbing
138
5
14. Conservation
143
18
14.1 Causes of Declining Bumblebee Numbers
144
5
14.1.1 Declines in floral diversity
144
2
14.1.2 Loss of nest and hibernation sites
146
1
14.1.3 Pesticides
146
2
14.1.4 Effects of habitat fragmentation
148
1
14.2 Population Structure
149
2
14.3 Why are Some Bumblebee Species Still Abundant?
151
1
14.4 Consequences of Declining Bumblebee Numbers
152
1
14.5 Conservation Strategies
153
8
15. Bumblebees abroad; effects of introduced bees on native ecosystems
161
16
15.1 Competition with Native Organisms for Floral Resources
163
6
15.1.1 Effects on foraging of native organisms
164
2
15.1.2 Evidence for population-level changes in native organisms
166
3
15.2 Competition for Nest Sites
169
1
15.3 Transmission of Parasites or Pathogens to Native Organisms
169
1
15.4 Effects on Pollination of Native Flora
170
2
15.5 Pollination of Exotic Weeds
172
2
15.6 Conclusions
174
3
References
177
52
Index
229