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Tables of Contents for Cognition
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Introduction
1
30
A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach
3
10
The Origins of Cognitive Psychology
3
1
Wilhelm Wundt
4
1
Early Memory Researchers
4
1
William James
5
1
Behaviorism
5
1
The Gestalt Approach
6
1
Frederick C. Bartlett
6
1
The Emergence of Contemporary Cognitive Psychology
7
1
Factors Contributing to the Rise of Cognitive Psychology
8
2
The Information-Processing Approach
10
3
Current Theoretical Issues in Cognitive Psychology
13
10
Cognitive Science
14
1
Cognitive Neuroscience
15
1
Brain Lesions
15
1
Brain-Imaging Techniques
16
1
Event-Related Potential
17
1
Single-Cell Recording Technique
17
1
Artificial Intelligence
18
1
The Computer Metaphor
18
1
Pure AI
19
1
Computer Simulation
19
1
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
20
1
Origins of the PDP Approach
21
1
Basic Characteristics of the PDP Approach
21
1
Reactions to the PDP Approach
22
1
An Overview of This Book
23
6
Preview of the Chapters
23
2
Themes in the Book
25
2
How to Use This Book
27
1
Chapter Outline
27
1
Chapter Preview
27
1
Applications
27
1
New Terms
27
1
``In Depth'' Features
28
1
Section Summaries
28
1
End-of-Chapter Review
28
1
Recommended Readings
28
1
Glossary
28
1
Chapter Review Questions
29
1
New Terms
30
1
Recommended Readings
30
1
Perceptual Processes
31
46
Introduction
32
1
Object Recognition
33
18
Background on Object Recognition
34
1
Theories of Object Recognition
35
1
Template-Matching Theory
36
2
Feature-Analysis Models
38
1
The Recognition-by-Components Model
39
2
How Top-Down Processing Influences Object Recognition
41
1
The Distinction Between Bottom-Up Processing and Top-Down Processing
41
1
The Research on Top-Down Processing
42
2
Overactive Top-Down Processing
44
1
In Depth: Face Perception
45
1
Recognizing Faces Versus Recognizing Other Objects
45
2
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition
47
1
Applied Research on Face Recognition
47
1
Change Blindness
48
3
Attention
51
22
Divided Attention
52
1
Research on Divided Attention
52
1
Divided Attention and Practice
53
1
Selective Attention
53
1
Dichotic Listening
54
2
The Stroop Effect
56
1
Theories of Attention
57
1
Early Theories of Attention
57
1
Automatic Versus Controlled Processing
58
2
Feature-Integration Theory
60
4
Neuroscience Research on Attention
64
1
The Posterior Attention Network
64
2
The Anterior Attention Network
66
1
Using the Event-Related Potential Technique to Explore Attention
66
1
Consciousness
67
1
Consciousness About Our Higher Mental Processes
68
1
Thought Suppression
69
1
Blindsight
70
1
The Cognitive Unconscious
71
2
Chapter Review Questions
73
1
New Terms
74
1
Recommended Readings
75
2
Working Memory
77
34
Introduction
78
2
The History of Research on Working Memory
80
5
George Miller's ``Magical Number Seven''
80
1
The Classic Research on Short-Term Memory
81
1
The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique
81
1
The Recency Effect
82
2
Memory Span
84
1
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model
84
1
A Different View: Baddeley's Approach
84
1
Factors Affecting the Capacity of Working Memory
85
5
Pronunciation Time
85
2
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Working Memory
87
3
Baddeley's Working-Memory Approach
90
18
Evidence for Components With Independent Capacities
92
1
Phonological Loop
93
1
Other Research on the Phonological Loop
94
1
Two Components of the Phonological Loop
94
1
The Biological Basis of the Phonological Loop
95
1
Other Uses for the Phonological Loop
95
1
Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
95
1
Visual Coding in Working Memory
96
3
Spatial Coding in Working Memory
99
1
Biological Basis of the Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
100
1
Central Executive
100
1
The Central Executive and Stimulus-Independent Thought
101
1
Biological Basis of the Central Executive
102
1
New Directions for Research in Working Memory
102
1
In Depth: Individual Differences in Working Memory
103
1
Working Memory and Language Skills
103
2
Working Memory and Reading Skills
105
1
Working Memory and Memory Experts
106
2
Chapter Review Questions
108
1
New Terms
109
1
Recommended Readings
109
2
Long-Term Memory
111
46
Introduction
112
1
Encoding in Long-Term Memory
113
16
Depth of Processing
115
1
Depth of Processing and Memory for Verbal Material
115
1
Depth of Processing and Memory for Faces
116
1
In Depth: The Self-Reference Effect
117
1
Research on the Self-Reference Effect
117
2
Explanations for the Self-Reference Effect
119
1
Biological Correlates of the Self-Reference Effect
120
1
Applications of the Self-Reference Effect
121
1
The Effects of Context: Encoding Specificity
121
1
Research on Encoding Specificity
121
3
Depth of Processing and Encoding Specificity
124
1
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
125
1
Memory for Items Differing in Emotion
125
1
Effects of Television Violence on Memory for Commercials
126
1
Mood Congruence
127
1
Mood-Dependent Memory
127
2
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory
129
10
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks
129
1
Definitions and Examples
129
2
Research With Normal Adults
131
1
The Current Status of Implicit Memory
132
1
Very Long-Term Memory
133
1
Expertise
134
2
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise
136
1
How Do Experts and Novices Differ?
136
1
Professional Actors
137
1
Own-Race Bias
137
1
Individuals With Amnesia
138
1
Autobiographical Memory
139
15
Flashbulb Memories
141
1
The Classic Research
142
1
More Recent Research
142
1
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory
143
1
Repisodic Memory
143
1
The Consistency Bias
144
1
Source Monitoring
145
1
Eyewitness Testimony
146
1
The Misinformation Effect
146
2
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
148
2
The Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
150
2
Earwitness Testimony
152
2
Chapter Review Questions
154
1
New Terms
155
1
Recommended Readings
155
2
Memory Strategies and Metacognition
157
36
Introduction
158
1
Memory Strategies
159
16
Suggestions From Previous Chapters: A Review
159
2
Practice
161
1
Mnemonics Using Imagery
162
1
The Keyword Method
163
1
The Method of Loci
164
2
Mnemonics Using Organization
166
1
Chunking
166
1
Hierarchy Technique
166
1
First-Letter Technique
167
1
Narrative Technique
168
1
The Multimodal Approach
168
2
Improving Prospective Memory
170
1
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory
170
1
Research on Prospective Memory
171
1
Absentmindedness
171
1
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory
172
3
Metacognition
175
14
In Depth: Metamemory
176
1
The Accuracy of Metamemory
176
2
The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance
178
1
Awareness of Factors Affecting Memory
179
1
Regulating Study Strategies
179
3
The Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
182
1
Brown and McNeill's Research
182
2
More Recent Research on the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
184
1
Metacomprehension
185
1
Metacomprehension Accuracy
185
2
Improving Metacomprehension
187
2
Chapter Review Questions
189
1
New Terms
190
1
Recommended Readings
191
2
Imagery
193
40
Introduction
194
1
The Characteristics of Mental Images
195
22
Imagery and Rotation
197
1
Shepard and Metzler's Research
197
2
More Recent Research on Mental Rotation
199
1
Imagery and Size
200
1
Kosslyn's Research
200
1
More Recent Research on Imagery and Size
200
2
Imagery and Shape
202
1
Simple Shapes
202
2
Complex Shapes
204
1
Imagery and Interference
205
1
Visual Images and Visual Perception
206
1
Motor Movement and Motor Images
207
1
Imagery and Ambiguous Figures
208
3
Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes
211
1
Imagery and Neuropsychological Evidence
212
1
Visual Imagery
212
1
Auditory and Motor Imagery
213
1
The Imagery Controversy, Revisited
213
1
The Analog Viewpoint
214
1
The Propositional Viewpoint
215
2
Cognitive Maps
217
14
Background Information About Cognitive Maps
217
2
Cognitive Maps and Distance
219
1
Number of Intervening Cities
220
1
Semantic Categories
220
1
Landmarks Versus Nonlandmarks as Destinations
221
1
Cognitive Maps and Shape
222
1
Angles
222
1
Curves
222
1
Cognitive Maps and Relative Position
223
1
The Rotation Heuristic
223
1
The Alignment Heuristic
224
2
Spatial Arrangement
226
1
In Depth: Using Verbal Descriptions to Create Mental Models
226
1
Franklin and Tversky's Research
227
1
The Spatial Framework Model
228
1
Further Research on Mental Models
229
2
Chapter Review Questions
231
1
New Terms
232
1
Recommended Readings
232
1
General Knowledge
233
50
Introduction
234
2
The Structure of Semantic Memory
236
28
Background on Semantic Memory
236
1
The Feature Comparison Model
237
1
Structural Components of the Feature Comparison Model
237
2
Research on the Feature Comparison Model
239
1
Conclusions About the Feature Comparison Model
240
1
In Depth: The Prototype Approach
240
1
Characteristics of Prototypes
241
4
Levels of Categorization
245
3
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach
248
1
The Exemplar Approach
249
1
A Representative Study on the Exemplar Approach
249
1
Comparing the Exemplar Approach With Other Approaches
250
1
New Directions in the Exemplar Approach
251
1
Network Models
252
1
The Collins and Loftus Network Model
252
1
Anderson's ACT Theory
253
3
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
256
8
Schemas and Scripts
264
16
Background on Schemas and Scripts
264
2
Factors Related to the Recall of Scripts
266
1
Script Identification
266
1
Appreciating the Similarity of Related Scripts
266
1
Schemas and Memory Selection
267
1
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent Material
267
2
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent Material
269
3
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Selection
272
1
Schemas and Boundary Extension
272
1
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
273
1
The Constructive Approach
273
1
The Pragmatic Approach
274
1
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction
275
1
Schemas and Inferences in Memory
276
1
The Classic Research on Inferences
276
1
Implications for Advertising
277
1
Schemas and Integration in Memory
277
1
Integration and Delayed Recall
278
1
Integration and Limited Memory Capacity
278
1
Conclusions About Schemas
279
1
Chapter Review Questions
280
1
New Terms
281
1
Recommended Readings
282
1
Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension
283
46
Introduction
284
2
The Nature of Language
286
14
Background on the Structure of Language
286
1
Usefulness of Phrase Structure
287
1
Research on Phrase Structure
287
1
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics
288
1
Chomsky's Transformational Grammar
288
2
Research About Chomsky's Theory
290
1
Psycholinguistic Theories Emphasizing Meaning
291
1
Factors Affecting Comprehension
292
1
Negatives
292
1
The Passive Voice
293
1
Nested Structures
293
1
Ambiguity
293
2
Neurolinguistics
295
1
Hemispheric Specialization
295
1
Individuals With Aphasia
296
1
Neuroimaging Research With Normal Individuals
297
2
Brain Imaging and Specific Language Knowledge
299
1
Speech Perception
300
8
Characteristics of Speech Perception
301
1
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation
301
1
Context and Speech Perception
302
2
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception
304
1
Word Boundaries
305
1
Theories of Speech Perception
305
1
The Special Mechanism Approach
306
1
The General Mechanism Approaches
306
2
Basic Reading Processes
308
9
Comparing Written and Spoken Language
309
1
Saccadic Eye Movements
309
2
Discovering the Meaning of an Unfamiliar Word
311
1
Reading and Working Memory
312
1
Theories About the Role of Sound in Word Recognition
313
1
Research on the Dual-Route Hypothesis
314
1
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children
315
2
Understanding Discourse
317
8
Forming a Coherent Representation of the Text
317
1
In Depth: Inferences in Reading
318
1
The Constructionist Versus Minimalist Views of Inferences
318
2
Factors That Encourage Inferences
320
2
Higher-Level Inferences
322
1
Artificial Intelligence and Reading
322
1
The FRUMP Project
323
1
More Recent Projects
324
1
Chapter Review Questions
325
1
New Terms
326
1
Recommended Readings
327
2
Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism
329
30
Introduction
330
1
Speaking
331
11
Producing a Word
331
1
Producing a Sentence
332
1
Speech Errors
333
1
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors
333
2
Producing Discourse
335
1
The Social Context of Speech
336
1
Common Ground
337
3
Conversational Format
340
1
Directives
340
2
Writing
342
5
A Cognitive Model of Writing
343
1
Planning the Writing Assignment
344
1
Sentence Generation During Writing
345
1
The Revision Phase of Writing
345
1
Writing Style in Psychology
346
1
Bilingualism
347
9
Background on Bilingualism
348
2
Advantages of Bilingualism
350
1
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition
351
1
Phonology
352
1
Vocabulary
352
1
Grammar
353
3
Chapter Review Questions
356
1
New Terms
357
1
Recommended Readings
357
2
Problem Solving and Creativity
359
40
Introduction
360
2
Understanding the Problem
362
8
The Requirements for Problem Understanding
362
1
Paying Attention to Important Information
363
1
Methods of Representing the Problem
364
1
Symbols
364
2
Matrices
366
1
Diagrams
366
1
Visual Images
367
1
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Context
368
2
Problem-Solving Approaches
370
7
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic
370
2
The Means-Ends Heuristic
372
1
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic
372
1
Computer Simulation
373
1
The Analogy Approach
374
1
The Structure of the Analogy Approach
375
1
Factors Encouraging Appropriate Use of Analogies
375
2
Factors That Influence Problem Solving
377
10
Expertise
377
1
Knowledge Base
377
1
Memory
378
1
Representation
378
1
Problem-Solving Approaches
378
1
Elaborating on Initial States
379
1
Speed and Accuracy
379
1
Metacognitive Skills
380
1
Mental Set
380
1
Functional Fixedness
381
2
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems
383
1
The Nature of Insight
383
1
Metacognition During Problem Solving
384
1
The Role of Language in Problem Solving
384
3
Creativity
387
8
Definitions
387
1
Approaches to Creativity
388
1
Divergent Production
388
1
Investment Theory of Creativity
389
1
In Depth: Task Motivation and Creativity
390
1
The Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity
390
1
The Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity
391
2
Incubation and Creativity
393
2
Chapter Review Questions
395
1
New Terms
396
1
Recommended Readings
396
3
Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making
399
50
Introduction
400
1
Deductive Reasoning
401
10
An Overview of Conditional Reasoning
402
3
Difficulties With Negative Information
405
1
Difficulties With Abstract Reasoning Problems
405
1
The Belief-Bias Effect
406
1
Making an Illicit Conversion
407
1
The Confirmation Bias
408
1
The Standard Wason Selection Task
408
1
Variations on the Wason Selection Task
409
1
Failing to Transfer Knowledge to a New Task
410
1
Decision Making
411
35
The Representativeness Heuristic
413
2
Sample Size and Representativeness
415
1
Base Rate and Representativeness
416
2
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness
418
2
The Availability Heuristic
420
2
Recency and Availability
422
1
Familiarity and Availability
423
2
Illusory Correlation and Availability
425
2
The Simulation Heuristic and Availability
427
1
The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
428
1
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic.
429
1
Applications of the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
430
2
Estimating Confidence Intervals
432
1
The Framing Effect
433
1
Background Information and the Framing Effect
434
1
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect
435
1
Reasons for the Framing Effect
436
1
In Depth: Overconfidence in Decisions
437
1
General Studies on Overconfidence
437
1
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making
438
1
Students' Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time
439
1
Reasons for Overconfidence
440
1
The Hindsight Bias
441
2
Research About the Hindsight Bias
443
1
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias
444
1
Two Perspectives on Decision Making: The Optimists Versus the Pessimists
444
2
Chapter Review Questions
446
1
New Terms
447
1
Recommended Readings
448
1
Cognitive Development
449
42
Introduction
450
2
The Development of Memory
452
18
Memory in Infants
452
1
Recognizing Mother
452
1
Conjugate Reinforcement With a Mobile
453
3
Imitation
456
1
In Depth: Memory in Children
456
1
Children's Working Memory
457
1
Children's Long-Term Memory: General
457
2
Children's Long-Term Memory: Autobiographical Memory
459
3
Children's Memory Strategies
462
3
Memory in Elderly People
465
1
Working Memory in the Elderly
465
1
Long-Term Memory in the Elderly
466
2
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory
468
2
The Development of Metacognition
470
6
Metacognition in Children
470
1
Children's Metamemory: How Memory Works
470
1
Children's Metamemory: Realizing the Necessity of Effort
471
1
Children's Metamemory: Accuracy of Predictions
472
1
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance
472
2
Children's Metacomprehension
474
1
Metacognition in Elderly People
474
2
The Development of Language
476
12
Language in Infants
477
1
Speech Perception in Infancy
477
2
Language Comprehension in Infancy
479
1
Language Production in Infancy
480
1
Parents' Language to Infants
480
2
Language in Children
482
1
Words
482
2
Morphology
484
1
Syntax
485
2
Pragmatics
487
1
Chapter Review Questions
488
1
New Terms
489
1
Recommended Readings
490
1
One Last Task
490
1
Glossary
491
14
References
505
64
Credits
569
1
Name Index
570
11
Subject Index
581