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Tables of Contents for Human Learning
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN LEARNING
Definitions and Perspectives of Learning
1
8
Importance of Learning
2
1
Defining Learning
3
1
Nature of Principles and Theories
4
2
Advantages of Theories
5
1
Disadvantages of Theories
6
1
A Perspective on Theories and Principles
6
1
Applying Principles and Theories to Instructional Practice
6
1
Overview of the Book
7
1
Summary
8
1
PART TWO BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Overview of Behaviorism
9
12
Assumptions of Behaviorism
10
1
Early Theorists in the Behaviorist Tradition
11
7
Ivan Pavlov
11
1
Edward L. Thorndike
12
1
John B. Watson
13
1
Edwin R. Guthrie
14
1
Clark L. Hull
15
1
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
16
2
Contemporary Behaviorism
18
1
General Educational Implications of Behaviorism
18
2
Emphasis on Behavior
18
1
Drill and Practice
19
1
Breaking Habits
19
1
Rewards (Reinforcement) for Desirable Behavior
20
1
Summary
20
1
Classical Conditioning
21
14
Pavlov's Experiment
22
1
The Classical Conditioning Model
23
1
Classical Conditioning in Human Learning
24
2
Basic Concepts in Classical Conditioning
26
3
Extinction
26
1
Spontaneous Recovery
26
1
Stimulus Generalization
27
1
Stimulus Discrimination
27
1
Higher-Order Conditioning
27
1
Sensory Preconditioning
28
1
Contemporary Perspectives on Classical Conditioning
29
1
Changing Inappropriate Conditioned Responses
30
3
Extinguishing Undersirable Responses
31
1
Counterconditioning More Desirable Responses
31
2
Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning
33
1
Summary
34
1
Operant Conditioning
35
32
The Operant Conditioning Model
36
2
Defining Reinforcers and Reinforcement
37
1
Three Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning
37
1
What Behaviors Can Be Reinforced?
38
1
Contrasting Operant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning
38
1
Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning
39
4
Free Operant Level (Baseline)
39
1
Terminal Behavior
40
1
Extinction
40
1
Superstitious Behavior
41
1
Shaping
41
1
Chaining
42
1
The Nature of Reinforcers
43
6
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
43
1
Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, and Punishment
44
2
Different Kinds of Reinforcing Stimuli
46
3
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Reinforcement
49
2
Timing
49
1
Magnitude and Appeal
49
1
Consistency
50
1
Schedules of Reinforcement
51
5
Ratio Schedules: Reinforcing a Certain Number of Responses
51
2
Interval Schedules: Reinforcing the First Response After a Time Period
53
2
Differential Schedules: Reinforcing Rates of Responding
55
1
Stimulus Control
56
3
Stimulus Generalization
57
1
Stimulus Discrimination
57
1
Stimulus Control in the Classroom
58
1
Contemporary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning
59
1
Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors
60
2
Extinguishing Responses
61
1
Reinforcing Other Behaviors
61
1
Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors
62
1
When Reinforcement Doesn't Work
62
3
The ``Reinforcer'' Doesn't Reinforce
62
1
Reinforcement Is Inconsistent
63
1
Change Isn't Worthwhile
64
1
Shaping Proceeds Too Rapidly
64
1
Skinner on Education
65
1
Summary
65
2
Applications of Operant Conditioning
67
27
Instructional Objectives
68
4
Behavioral Objectives
68
1
The Current Perspective on Instructional Objectives
69
1
Formulating Different Levels of Objectives
70
1
Usefulness and Effectiveness of Objectives
70
2
Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction
72
5
Effectiveness of PI and CAI
77
1
Mastery Learning
77
3
Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
78
1
Effectiveness of Mastery Learning and PSI
79
1
Contingency Contracts
80
2
Guidelines for Writing Contingency Contracts
81
1
Applied Behavior Analysis
82
7
Components of Applied Behavior Analysis
82
3
Using Applied Behavior Analysis with Large Groups
85
3
Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA
88
1
Effectiveness of ABA
88
1
Criticisms of Using Reinforcement in the Classroom
89
2
Bogus Complaints
89
1
Genuine Concerns
90
1
When Operant Conditioning Techniques are Most Appropriate
91
1
Summary
92
2
Effects of Aversive Stimuli
94
20
Escape and Avoidance Learning
94
4
Escape Learning
95
1
Avoidance Learning
96
2
Punishment
98
13
Disadvantages of Punishment
99
2
Effectiveness of Punishment
101
2
Theoretical Perspectives on Punishment
103
1
Using Punishment in Classroom Settings
104
2
Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
106
5
Learned Helplessness
111
2
Summary
113
1
PART THREE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
114
31
The Social Learning Model
116
1
General Principles of Social Learning Theory
116
1
Environmental Factors in Social Learning: Reinforcement and Punishment
117
5
How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modeling
118
2
Problems with a Strict Operant Conditioning Analysis of Social Learning
120
1
A Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment
121
1
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning
122
1
Learning without Performance
122
1
Cognitive Processing during Learning
122
1
Expectations
122
1
Awareness of Response-Consequence Contingencies
123
1
Reciprocal Causation
123
2
Modeling
125
8
Types of Models
125
1
Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling
125
3
Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur
128
3
Effects of Modeling on Behavior
131
1
Characteristics of Effective Models
132
1
Self-Efficacy
133
3
How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior
134
1
Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy
134
2
Self-Regulation
136
5
Aspects of Self-Regulation
136
1
Promoting Self-Regulation
137
3
Self-Regulation from a Cognitive Perspective
140
1
Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
141
3
Summary
144
1
PART FOUR COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING
Antecedents and Assumptions of Cognitivism
145
30
Edward Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
146
4
Gestalt Psychology
150
4
Jean Piaget's Developmental Theory
154
6
Lev Vygotsky's Developmental Theory
160
3
Verbal Learning Research
163
5
Introduction to Contemporary Cognitivism
168
4
General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories
168
2
Information Processing Theory
170
1
Constructivism
171
1
Contextual Views
171
1
Integrating Cognitive Perspectives
172
1
General Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories
172
1
Overview of Upcoming Chapters
173
1
Summary
174
1
Basic Components of Memory
175
28
Basic Terminology in Memory Theory
176
2
Learning versus Memory
176
1
Storage
177
1
Encoding
177
1
Retrieval
177
1
A Dual-Store Model of Memory
178
1
Sensory Register
179
2
Characteristics of the Sensory Register
180
1
Moving Information on to Working Memory: The Role of Attention
181
6
Factors Influencing Attention
182
1
Nominal versus Effective Stimuli
183
1
Nature of Attention
184
2
Attention as a Limited Capacity
186
1
Working Memory
187
5
Characteristics of Working Memory
188
2
Control Processes in Working Memory
190
2
Long-Term Memory
192
2
Characteristics of Long-Term Memory
192
1
Control Processes in Long-Term Memory
193
1
Are Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Different?
194
2
Evidence Supporting the Distinction
194
1
Evidence against the Distinction
195
1
Functional Theories of Human Memory
196
3
Levels of Processing
196
2
Memory Activation
198
1
Generalizations About Memory and Their Educational Implications
199
2
Summary
201
2
Long-Term Memory I: Storage
203
27
Construction in Storage
204
4
Examples of Construction in Action
205
3
Long-Term Memory Storage Processes
208
11
Selection
210
1
Rehearsal
211
1
Meaningful Learning
212
1
Internal Organization
213
2
Elaboration
215
2
Visual Imagery
217
2
Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory Storage
219
9
Activities That Occur during Learning
219
1
Working Memory
220
1
Prior Knowledge
221
4
Prior Misconceptions
225
1
Expectations
226
2
Some Final Remarks About Long-Term Memory Storage
228
1
Summary
229
1
Long-Term Memory II:The Nature of Knowledge
230
34
Possible Dichotomies in Long-Term Memory
231
2
Episodic versus Semantic Memory
232
1
Declarative versus Procedural Knowledge
232
1
Explicit versus Implicit Memory
232
1
How Information is Encoded in Long-Term Memory
233
5
Encoding in Terms of Symbols: Words, Numbers, Etc.
233
1
Encoding in Terms of Appearance: Imagery
234
1
Encoding in Terms of Meanings: Propositions
235
1
Encoding in Terms of Actions: Productions
236
2
The Organization of Long-Term Memory
238
6
Long-Term Memory as a Hierarchy
239
2
Long-Term Memory as a Propositional Network
241
2
Parallel Distributed Processing
243
1
Concepts
244
10
Theories of Concept Learning
247
7
Schemas and Scripts
254
3
Mental Theories
257
1
Development of Expertise
258
1
Generalizations About the Nature of Knowledge
259
3
Summary
262
2
Long-Term Memory III: Retrieval, Forgetting, and Classroom Practice
264
21
How Retrieval Works
265
3
Retrieval Cues
268
2
Construction in Retrieval
270
3
Value of Repetition and Review
273
3
Development of Automaticity
274
2
Theories of Forgetting
276
4
Decay
276
1
Obliterative Subsumption
277
1
Interference
277
1
Failure to Retrieve
278
1
Repression
278
1
Construction Error
279
1
Failure to Store
279
1
Facilitating Storage and Retrieval in the Classroom
280
4
Summary
284
1
Applications of Cognitivism I: Promoting Effective Memory Processes
285
33
Expository Instruction
286
7
Advance Organizers
288
1
Ongoing Connections to Prior Knowledge
289
2
Coherent Organization
291
1
Signals
291
1
Visual Aids
292
1
Summaries
293
1
Teaching Concepts
293
5
Factors Influencing Concept Learning
294
2
Teaching Concepts Effectively
296
2
Mnemonics
298
6
Verbal Mediation
298
1
Visual Imagery
299
3
Superimposed Meaningful Structure
302
1
External Retrieval Cues
303
1
Why Mnemonics Work
304
1
Teacher Questions
304
1
Wait Time
305
2
Conceptual Change
307
6
Classroom Assessment Practices and Learning
313
2
Paper-Pencil Tests
313
1
Alternative Forms of Assessment
314
1
Teacher Expectations
315
2
Summary
317
1
PART FIVE COMPLEX LEARNING AND COGNITION
Metacognition and Study Strategies
318
29
Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
320
2
Self-Regulated Learning
322
2
Effective Learning and Study Strategies
324
10
Meaningful Learning and Elaboration
324
1
Organization
325
3
Note Taking
328
2
Identifying Important Information
330
1
Comprehension Monitoring
330
3
Summarizing
333
1
Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
334
1
Epistemological Beliefs
335
4
Why Students Don't Always Use Effective Strategies
339
2
Promoting Effective Learning and Study Strategies
341
4
Effectiveness of Study Skills Training Programs
341
1
Guidelines for Promoting Effective Strategies
342
3
Summary
345
2
Transfer and Problem Solving
347
38
Transfer
348
1
Types of Transfer
348
2
Theories of Transfer
350
4
Factors Affecting Transfer
354
3
Problem Solving
357
21
Basic Concepts in Problem Solving
358
2
Theories of Problem Solving
360
2
Cognitive Factors in Problem Solving
362
9
Problem-Solving Strategies
371
6
Meaningless versus Meaningful Problem Solving
377
1
Facilitating Transfer and Problem Solving in the Classroom
378
5
Summary
383
2
Applications of Cognitivism II: Learning through Interactions with Others
385
21
Class Discussions
386
3
Guidelines for Promoting Effective Discussions
387
2
Reciprocal Teaching
389
3
Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching
391
1
Cooperative Learning
392
4
Common Features of Cooperative Learning
393
2
How Heterogeneous Should Cooperative Groups Be?
395
1
Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Activities
395
1
Peer Tutoring
396
3
Guidelines for Facilitating Effective Tutoring
397
2
Apprenticeships
399
1
Authentic Activities
400
2
Effectiveness of Authentic Activities
401
1
Community of Learners
402
2
Advantages of Interactive Approaches
404
1
Summary
404
2
PART SIX MOTIVATION
Motivation and Affect
406
26
General Effects of Motivation
407
1
Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation
408
2
Drives and Incentives
410
2
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
412
3
Self-Worth Theory
415
1
Individual Differences in Motivation
416
3
Need for Affiliation
416
1
Need for Approval
417
1
Need for Achievement
417
2
The Contemporary Cognitive Perspective of Motivation
419
1
The Role of Affect
419
8
Anxiety
421
6
Promoting Student Motivation
427
4
Summary
431
1
Cognitive Factors in Motivation
432
41
Goals
434
5
Learning Goals versus Performance Goals
435
3
Coordinating Multiple Goals
438
1
Expectancies and Values
439
1
Interest
440
3
Effects of Interest
441
1
Factors Promoting Interest
442
1
Attributions
443
13
Dimensions Underlying People's Attributions
443
3
Effects of Attributions
446
3
Factors Influencing the Development of Attributions
449
4
Explanatory Style: Mastery Orientation versus Learned Helplessness
453
1
Changing Attributions
454
2
Competence and Self-Determination
456
6
Competence
457
1
Self-Determination
457
4
Effects of Feedback
461
1
Internalized Motivation
462
2
Effects of Challenge and Competition
464
3
Challenge
464
1
Competition
465
2
Promoting Cognitions That Motivate
467
4
Summary
471
2
References
473
55
Author Index
528
19
Subject Index
547