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Tables of Contents for Earth
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xvii
Instructor and Student Resources
xxi
An Introduction to Geology
1
33
The Science of Geology
2
3
Geology, People, and the Environment
3
1
Some Historical Notes About Geology
4
1
Geologic Time
5
3
Relative Dating and the Geologic Time Scale
6
1
The Magnitude of Geologic Time
7
1
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
8
4
Hypothesis
8
2
Theory
10
1
Scientific Methods
10
1
Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry
11
1
A View of Earth
12
2
Hydrosphere
13
1
Atmosphere
13
1
Biosphere
14
1
Solid Earth
14
1
Earth As a System
14
3
Earth System Science
14
1
The Earth System
15
2
Early Evolution of Earth
17
2
Origin of Planet Earth
17
2
Formation of Earth's Layered Structure
19
1
Earth's Internal Structure
19
5
Layers Defined by Composition
19
2
Layers Defined by Physical Properties
21
1
How Do We Know What We Know?
21
3
The Face of Earth
24
2
Major Features of the Continents
24
1
Major Features of the Ocean Floor
25
1
Rocks and the Rock Cycle
26
8
Basic Rock Types
26
5
The Rock Cycle: One of Earth's Subsystems
31
Box 1.1 Understanding Earth: Studying Earth from Space
10
2
Box 1.2 Understanding Earth: Do Glaciers Move? An Application of the Scientific Method
12
22
Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds
34
42
Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time
37
6
Fit of the Continents
38
1
Fossil Evidence
39
2
Rock Type and Structural Similarities
41
1
Paleoclimatic Evidence
42
1
The Great Debate
43
2
Rejection of the Continental Drift Hypothesis
43
1
Continental Drift and the Scientific Method
44
1
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism
45
3
Earth's Magnetic Field and Fossil Magnetism
45
2
Apparent Polar Wandering
47
1
A Scientific Revolution Begins
48
5
The Seafloor-Spreading Hypothesis
48
1
Geomagnetic Reversals: Evidence for Seafloor Spreading
49
3
The Last Piece of the Puzzle
52
1
Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm
53
4
Earth's Major Plates
53
3
Plate Boundaries
56
1
Divergent Boundaries
57
1
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
57
1
Continental Rifting
58
1
Convergent Boundaries
58
4
Oceanic-Continental Convergence
60
1
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
60
2
Continental-Continental Convergence
62
1
Transform Fault Boundaries
62
2
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model
64
3
Evidence from Ocean Drilling
65
1
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
66
1
Measuring Plate Motion
67
2
Paleomagnetism and Plate Motions
67
1
Measuring Plate Velocities from Space
68
1
What Drives Plate Motions?
69
2
Forces that Drive Plate Motion
69
1
Models of Plate-Mantle Convection
70
1
The Importance of the Plate Tectonics Theory
71
5
Box 2.1 Understanding Earth: The Breakup of Pangaea
40
4
Box 2.2 Understanding Earth: Alfred Wegener (1880-1930): Polar Explorer and Visionary
44
6
Box 2.3 Understanding Earth: Priority in the Sciences
50
23
Box 2.4 Understanding Earth: Sampling the Ocean Floor
73
3
Matter and Minerals
76
32
Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
78
2
The Composition of Minerals
80
7
Atomic Structure
80
2
Bonding
82
4
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay
86
1
The Structure of Minerals
87
1
Physical Properties of Minerals
88
5
Primary Diagnostic Properties
89
3
Other Properties of Minerals
92
1
Mineral Groups
93
1
The Silicates
94
2
The Silicon--Oxygen Tetrahedron
94
1
Other Silicate Structures
94
1
Joining Silicate Structures
95
1
Common Silicate Minerals
96
5
The Light Silicates
98
2
The Dark Silicates
100
1
Important Nonsilicate Minerals
101
7
Box 3.1 People and the Environment: Making Glass from Minerals
81
3
Box 3.2 People and the Environment: Asbestos: What Are the Risks?
84
20
Box 3.3 Understanding Earth: Gemstones
104
4
Igneous Rocks
108
28
Magma: The Parent Material of Igneous Rock
110
2
The Nature of Magma
110
1
From Magma to Crystalline Rock
111
1
Igneous Textures
112
3
Factors Affecting Crystal Size
112
1
Types of Igneous Textures
113
2
Igneous Compositions
115
4
Granitic versus Basaltic Composition
116
1
Other Compositional Groups
117
1
Silica Content As an Indicator of Composition
117
2
Naming Igneous Rocks
119
5
Felsic (Granitic) Igneous Rocks
119
2
Intermediate (Andesitic) Igneous Rocks
121
1
Mafic (Basaltic) Igneous Rocks
121
1
Pyroclastic Rocks
122
2
Origin of Magma
124
4
Generating Magma from Solid Rock
124
4
How Magmas Evolve
128
4
Bowen's Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks
128
2
Assimilation and Magma Mixing
130
2
Partial Melting and Magma Formation
132
4
Formation of a Basaltic Magma
132
1
Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas
132
Box 4.1 Understanding Earth: Pegmatites
116
2
Box 4.2 Understanding Earth: Thin Sections and Rock Identification
118
13
Box 4.3 Understanding Earth: A Closer Look at Bowen's Reaction Series
131
5
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity
136
46
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
140
2
Factors Affecting Viscosity
140
1
Importance of Dissolved Gases
141
1
Materials Extruded During an Eruption
142
5
Lava Flows
144
1
Gases
145
1
Pyroclastic Materials
146
1
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles
147
7
Anatomy of a Volcano
147
1
Shield Volcanoes
148
3
Cinder Cones
151
2
Composite Cones
153
1
Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone
154
4
The Lost Continent of Atlantis
154
1
Eruption of Vesuvius A.D. 79
155
1
Nuee Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow
156
1
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones
157
1
Other Volcanic Landforms
158
4
Calderas
158
1
Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus
159
2
Lava Domes
161
1
Volcanic Pipes and Necks
161
1
Intrusive Igneous Activity
162
6
Nature of Plutons
163
1
Dikes
163
1
Sills and Laccoliths
164
3
Batholiths
167
1
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity
168
7
Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries
172
1
Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries
173
1
Intraplate Igneous Activity
174
1
Can Volcanoes Change Earth's Climate?
175
7
The Basic Premise
176
1
Three Modern Examples
177
Box 5.1 Understanding Earth: Anatomy of an Eruption
143
22
Box 5.2 People and the Environment: Volcanic Crisis on Montserrat
165
13
Box 5.3 Earth As a System: A Possible Link Between Volcanism and Climate Change in the Geologic Past
178
4
Weathering and Soil
182
28
Earth's External Processes
184
1
Weathering
185
1
Mechanical Weathering
185
2
Frost Wedging
185
1
Unloading
186
1
Thermal Expansion
186
1
Biological Activity
187
1
Chemical Weathering
187
7
Dissolution
187
2
Oxidation
189
1
Hydrolysis
190
3
Alterations Caused by Chemical Weathering
193
1
Rates of Weathering
194
2
Rock Characteristics
195
1
Climate
196
1
Differential Weathering
196
1
Soil
196
2
An Interface in the Earth System
197
1
What Is Soil?
197
1
Controls of Soil Formation
198
2
Parent Material
198
1
Time
198
1
Climate
199
1
Plants and Animals
199
1
Topography
200
1
The Soil Profile
200
4
Classifying Soils
204
1
Soil Erosion
204
6
How Soil Is Eroded
204
1
Rates of Erosion
204
3
Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution
207
Box 6.1 Understanding Earth: The Old Man of the Mountain
188
4
Box 6.2 Earth As a System: Acid Precipitation---A Human Impact on the Earth System
192
13
Box 6.3 People and the Environment: Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest---The Impact on its Soils
205
2
Box 6.4 People and the Environment: Dust Bowl---Soil Erosion in the Great Plains
207
3
Sedimentary Rocks
210
32
What Is a Sedimentary Rock?
212
1
Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification
212
2
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
214
1
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
214
6
Shale
215
1
Sandstone
216
2
Conglomerate and Breccia
218
2
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
220
6
Limestone
221
1
Dolostone
222
1
Chert
223
10
Evaporites
233
Coal
225
1
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
226
2
Sedimentary Environments
228
7
Types of Sedimentary Environments
232
3
Sedimentary Facies
235
1
Sedimentary Structures
235
7
Box 7.1 Earth As a System: The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks
220
9
Box 7.2 Earth As a System: Using Seafloor Sediments to Unravel Past Climates
229
3
Box 7.3 Understanding Earth: The Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Sediments
232
10
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
242
28
Metamorphism
244
2
Agents of Metamorphism
246
4
Heat As a Metamorphic Agent
246
1
Pressure and Differential Stress
247
2
Chemically Active Fluids
249
1
The Importance of Parent Rock
249
1
Metamorphic Textures
250
3
Foliation
250
1
Foliated Textures
251
2
Other Metamorphic Textures
253
1
Common Metamorphic Rocks
253
3
Foliated Rocks
254
1
Nonfoliated Rocks
255
1
Metamorphic Environments
256
6
Contact or Thermal Metamorphism
257
1
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
258
2
Regional Metamorphism
260
1
Other Metamorphic Environments
260
2
Metamorphic Zones
262
2
Textural Variations
262
1
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
262
2
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
264
6
Ancient Metamorphic Environments
265
1
Box 8.1 Understanding Earth: Impact Metamorphism and Tektites
266
4
Geologic Time
270
30
Geology Needs a Time Scale
272
1
Relative Dating---Key Principles
273
3
Law of Superposition
273
1
Principle of Original Horizontality
273
1
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
274
1
Inclusions
275
1
Unconformities
275
1
Using Relative Dating Principles
276
1
Correlation of Rock Layers
276
1
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
277
7
Types of Fossils
278
1
Conditions Favoring Preservation
279
2
Fossils and Correlation
281
3
Dating with Radioactivity
284
9
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure
285
1
Radioactivity
285
2
Half-Life
287
1
Radiometric Dating
287
3
Dating with Carbon-14
290
1
Importance of Radiometric Dating
291
2
The Geologic Time Scale
293
1
Structure of the Time Scale
293
1
Precambrian Time
293
1
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale
294
6
Box 9.1 Understanding Earth: Applying Relative Dating Principles to the Lunar Surface
283
1
Box 9.2 Understanding Earth: The Burgess Shale
284
4
Box 9.3 People and the Environment: Radon
288
2
Box 9.4 Understanding Earth: Using Tree Rings to Date and Study the Recent Past
290
4
Box 9.5 Earth As a System: Demise of the Dinosaurs
294
6
Crustal Deformation
300
26
Structural Geology: A Study of Earth's Architecture
302
1
Deformation
302
5
Force and Stress
302
1
Types of Stress
302
2
Strain
304
1
How Rocks Deform
305
2
Mapping Geologic Structures
307
1
Strike and Dip
308
1
Folds
308
4
Types of Folds
308
3
Domes and Basins
311
1
Faults
312
9
Dip-Slip Faults
314
1
Strike-Slip Faults
314
7
Joints
321
5
Box 10.1 Understanding Earth: Naming Local Rock Units
309
13
Box 10.2 People and the Environment: The San Andreas Fault System
322
4
Earthquakes
326
34
What Is an Earthquake?
329
2
Earthquakes and Faults
330
1
Elastic Rebound
331
1
Foreshocks and Aftershocks
331
1
Earthquake Rupture and Propagation
331
2
San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone
333
1
Seismology
333
4
Locating the Source of an Earthquake
337
3
Earthquake Belts
338
1
Earthquake Depths
338
2
Measuring the Size of Earthquakes
340
4
Intensity Scales
340
1
Magnitude Scales
341
3
Earthquake Destruction
344
6
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
344
1
Tsunami
345
3
Landslides and Ground Subsidence
348
1
Fire
349
1
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
350
5
Short-Range Predictions
351
1
Long-Range Forecasts
352
3
Earthquakes: Evidence for Plate Tectonics
355
5
Box 11.1 People and the Environment: Earthquakes East of the Rockies
339
7
Box 11.2 Understanding Earth: Wave Amplification and Seismic Risks
346
3
Box 11.3 People and the Environment: Tsunami Warning System
349
5
Box 11.4 Understanding Earth: A Major Earthquake in Turkey
354
6
Earth's Interior
360
20
Probing Earth's Interior
362
1
The Nature of Seismic Waves
362
1
Seismic Waves and Earth's Structure
363
3
Layers Defined by Composition
364
1
Layers Defined by Physical Properties
364
2
Discovering Earth's Major Boundaries
366
2
The Moho
366
2
The Core--Mantle Boundary
368
1
Discovery of the Inner Core
368
1
The Crust
368
2
The Mantle
370
1
The Core
371
2
Density and Composition
371
1
Origin
372
1
Earth's Magnetic Field
373
1
Earth's Internal Heat Engine
373
7
Heat Flow in the Crust
373
1
Mantle Convection
373
Box 12.1 Understanding Earth: Inge Lehmann---A Pioneering Geophysicist
370
4
Box 12.2 Understanding Earth: Why Does Earth Have a Magnetic Field?
374
2
Box 12.3 Understanding Earth: Seismic Tomography of the Mantle
376
4
Divergent Boundaries: Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor
380
34
An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor
382
3
Mapping the Seafloor
382
2
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space
384
1
Provinces of the Ocean Floor
385
1
Continental Margins
385
4
Passive Continental Margins
385
3
Active Continental Margins
388
1
Features of the Deep-Ocean Basins
389
2
Deep-Ocean Trenches
389
1
Abyssal Plains
390
1
Seamounts, Guyots, and Oceanic Plateaus
390
1
Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge
391
2
Origin of Oceanic Lithosphere
393
3
Seafloor Spreading
393
3
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?
396
1
Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography
396
1
The Structure of Oceanic Crust
396
3
Formation of Oceanic Crust
397
2
Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust
399
1
Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin
399
5
Evolution of an Ocean Basin
399
4
Mechanisms for Continental Rifting
403
1
Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere
404
3
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts
405
1
Subducting Plates: The Demise of an Ocean Basin
406
1
Opening and Closing Ocean Basins: The Supercontinent Cycle
407
7
Before Pangaea
407
2
Plate Tectonics into the Future
409
Box 13.1 Understanding Earth: Susan DeBari---A Career in Geology
387
5
Box 13.2 Understanding Earth: Explaining Coral Atolls---Darwin's Hypothesis
392
8
Box 13.3 Earth As a System: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities---Earth's First Life?
400
14
Convergent Boundaries: Mountain Building and the Evolution of the Continents
414
30
Mountain Building
417
1
Convergence and Subducting Plates
418
4
Major Features of Subduction Zones
418
4
Dynamics at Subduction Zones
422
1
Subduction and Mountain Building
422
3
Island Arcs
422
1
Mountain Building Along Andean-Type Margins
422
3
Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges
425
1
Continental Collisions
425
6
The Himalayas
427
1
The Appalachians
428
3
Terranes and Mountain Building
431
4
The Nature of Terranes
431
1
Accretion and Orogenesis
431
4
Fault-Block Mountains
435
1
Basin and Range Province
436
1
Vertical Movements of the Crust
436
3
Isostacy
437
2
Mantle Convection: A Cause of Vertical Crustal Movement
439
1
The Origin and Evolution of the Continents
439
5
Earth's First Continents
439
1
How Continents Grow
440
Box 14.1 Understanding Earth: Earthquakes in the Pacific Northwest
421
11
Box 14.2 Understanding Earth: The Southern Rockies
432
6
Box 14.3 Understanding Earth: Do Mountains Have Roots?
438
6
Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
444
22
A Landslide Disaster in Peru
446
1
Mass Wasting and Landform Development
447
1
The Role of Mass Wasting
447
1
Slopes Change Through Time
447
1
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting
448
3
The Role of Water
448
1
Oversteepened Slopes
448
1
Removal of Vegetation
449
1
Earthquakes as Triggers
450
1
Landslides Without Triggers?
451
1
Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes
451
3
Type of Material
451
1
Type of Motion
451
2
Rate of Movement
453
1
Slump
454
1
Rockslide
454
3
Debris Flow
457
2
Debris Flows in Semi-arid Regions
457
2
Lahars
459
1
Earthflow
459
2
Slow Movements
461
3
Creep
461
1
Solifluction
462
2
Submarine Landslides
464
2
Box 15.1 People and the Environment: The Vaiont Dam Disaster
449
6
Box 15.2 People and the Environment: Real-Time Monitoring of Active Landslides
455
5
Box 15.3 People and the Environment: Debris Flows on Alluvial Fans: A Case Study from Venezuela
460
2
Box 15.4 Understanding Earth: The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape
462
4
Running Water
466
36
Earth As a System: The Hydrologic Cycle
468
2
Running Water
470
1
Streamflow
471
2
Gradient and Channel Characteristics
471
1
Discharge
472
1
Changes from Upstream to Downstream
473
1
Base Level and Graded Streams
474
1
Stream Erosion
475
1
Transport of Sediment by Streams
476
3
Dissolved Load
477
1
Suspended Load
478
1
Bed Load
478
1
Capacity and Competence
478
1
Deposition of Sediment by Streams
479
5
Channel Deposits
479
1
Floodplain Deposits
480
1
Alluvial Fans and Deltas
481
3
Stream Valleys
484
4
Narrow Valleys
485
1
Wide Valleys
486
2
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces
488
1
Drainage Networks
489
2
Drainage Patterns
489
1
Headward Erosion and Stream Piracy
489
1
Formation of a Water Gap
490
1
Floods and Flood Control
491
11
Causes and Types of Floods
492
5
Flood Control
497
Box 16.1 People and the Environment: Coastal Wetlands Are Vanishing on the Mississippi Delta
484
12
Box 16.2 People and the Environment: Flash Floods
496
6
Groundwater
502
28
Importance of Underground Water
504
1
Distribution of Underground Water
504
1
The Water Table
505
2
Variations in the Water Table
506
1
Interaction Between Groundwater and Streams
507
1
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater
507
3
Porosity
509
1
Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers
509
1
Movement of Groundwater
510
1
Springs
511
1
Hot Springs and Geysers
512
2
Wells
514
1
Artesian Wells
515
2
Problems Associated with Groundwater Withdrawal
517
2
Treating Groundwater As a Nonrenewable Resource
517
1
Subsidence
517
1
Saltwater Contamination
518
1
Groundwater Contamination
519
2
The Geologic Work of Groundwater
521
9
Caverns
523
1
Karst Topography
524
Box 17.1 Earth As a System: Drought Impacts the Hydrologic System
508
12
Box 17.2 People and the Environment: The Ogallala Aquifer---How Long Will the Water Last?
520
2
Box 17.3 People and the Environment: Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley
522
8
Glaciers and Glaciation
530
36
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles
532
1
Types of Glaciers
533
3
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers
533
1
Ice Sheets
533
1
Other Types of Glaciers
534
1
What If the Ice Melted?
535
1
Formation of Glacial Ice
536
1
Movement of a Glacier
536
5
Rates of Glacial Movement
539
1
Budget of a Glacier
540
1
Glacial Erosion
541
1
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion
542
5
Glaciated Valleys
543
1
Aretes and Horns
543
4
Roches Moutonnees
547
1
Glacial Deposits
547
1
Landforms Made of Till
548
6
Lateral and Medial Morraines
548
1
End and Ground Morraines
549
2
Drumlins
551
3
Landforms Made of Stratified Drift
554
1
Outwash Plains and Valley Trains
554
1
Ice Contact Deposits
555
1
Glacial Theory and the Ice Age
555
1
Some Indirect Effects of Ice-Age Glaciers
556
2
Causes of Glaciation
558
8
Plate Tectonics
558
3
Variations in Earth's Orbit
561
Box 18.1 Understanding Earth: The Collapse of Antarctic Ice Shelves
535
24
Box 18.2 Understanding Earth: Rivers Before and After the Ice Age
559
1
Box 18.3 Understanding Earth: Glacial Ice---A Storehouse of Climate Data
560
6
Deserts and Winds
566
24
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands
569
3
Low-Latitude Deserts
569
2
Middle-Latitude Deserts
571
1
Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
572
3
Weathering
572
2
The Role of Water
574
1
Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape
575
3
Transportation of Sediment by Wind
578
1
Bed Load
578
1
Suspended Load
578
1
Wind Erosion
579
4
Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement
580
1
Ventifacts and Yardangs
581
2
Wind Deposits
583
7
Sand Deposits
583
1
Types of Sand Dunes
584
2
Loess (Silt) Deposits
586
Box 19.1 Understanding Earth: What Is Meant by ``Dry''?
569
4
Box 19.2 People and the Environment: The Disappearing Aral Sea
573
4
Box 19.3 Understanding Earth: Australia's Mount Uluru
577
5
Box 19.4 People and the Environment: Deserts Are Expanding
582
8
Shorelines
590
32
The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface
592
1
The Coastal Zone
592
2
Waves
594
2
Wave Characteristics
594
1
Circular Orbital Motion
595
1
Waves in the Surf Zone
595
1
Wave Erosion
596
1
Sand Movement on the Beach
597
5
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline
597
3
Wave Refraction
600
1
Beach Drift and Longshore Currents
600
2
Shoreline Features
602
2
Erosional Features
602
1
Depositional Features
603
1
The Evolving Shore
604
1
Stabilizing the Shore
604
9
Hard Stabilization
605
4
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization
609
2
Erosion Problems Along U.S. Coasts
611
2
Coastal Classification
613
1
Emergent Coasts
614
1
Submergent Coasts
614
1
Tides
614
8
Causes of Tides
615
1
Monthly Tidal Cycle
616
1
Tidal Patterns
617
1
Tidal Currents
617
1
Tides and Earth's Rotation
618
Box 20.1 People and the Environment: Hurricanes---The Ultimate Coastal Hazard
598
14
Box 20.2 People and the Environment: The Move of the Century---Relocating the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse
612
1
Box 20.3 People and the Environment: Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise
613
9
Energy and Mineral Resources
622
35
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
624
1
Energy Resources
625
1
Coal
625
2
Oil and Natural Gas
627
2
Petroleum Formation
627
1
Oil Traps
628
1
Some Environmental Effects of Burning Fossil Fuels
629
6
Urban Air Pollution
629
2
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
631
4
Oil Sands and Oil Shale---Petroleum for the Future?
635
1
Oil Sands
635
1
Oil Shale
636
1
Alternate Energy Sources
636
8
Nuclear Energy
637
1
Solar Energy
638
2
Wind Energy
640
1
Hydroelectric Power
640
1
Geothermal Energy
641
2
Tidal Power
643
1
Mineral Resources
644
1
Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes
644
4
Magmatic Segregation
645
1
Diamonds
645
1
Hydrothermal Solutions
646
2
Mineral Resources and Metamorphic Processes
648
1
Weathering and Ore Deposits
649
1
Bauxite
650
1
Other Deposits
650
1
Placer Deposits
650
1
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
651
6
Building Materials
652
1
Industrial Minerals
652
Box 21.1 Understanding Earth: Gas Hydrates---A Fuel from Ocean-Floor Sediments
628
6
Box 21.2 People and the Environment: Aerosols from the ``Human Volcano''
634
12
Box 21.3 Understanding Earth: Bingham Canyon, Utah---The Largest Open-Pit Mine
646
11
Planetary Geology
657
28
The Planets: An Overview
658
3
The Interiors of the Planets
659
1
The Atmospheres of the Planets
659
2
Earth's Moon
661
5
The Lunar Surface
665
1
Lunar History
665
1
The Planets: A Brief Tour
666
11
Mercury: The Innermost Planet
666
1
Venus: The Veiled Planet
666
1
Mars: The Red Planet
667
4
Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens
671
2
Saturn: The Elegant Planet
673
2
Uranus and Neptune: the Twins
675
2
Pluto: Planet X
677
1
Minor Members of the Solar System
677
8
Asteroids: Microplanets
677
1
Comets
678
3
Meteoroids
681
Box 22.1 Understanding Earth: Pathfinder---The First Geologist on Mars
668
10
Box 22.2 Understanding Earth: Is Pluto Really a Planet?
678
1
Box 22.3 Earth As a System: Is Earth on a Collision Course?
679
6
Appendix A Metric and English Systems Compared
685
1
Appendix B Landforms of the Conterminous United States
686
2
Glossary
688
17
Index
705