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Tables of Contents for Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xxv
Introduction to Op Amps
1
12
Learning Objectives
1
1
Introduction
2
1
Is There Still a Need for Analog Circuity?
2
2
Analog and Digital Systems
2
1
Op Amps Development
3
1
Op Amps Become Specialized
3
1
General-Purpose Op Amp
4
3
Circuit Symbol and Terminals
4
1
Simplified Internal Circuitry of a General-Purpose Op Amp
5
1
Input Stage---Differential Amplifier
6
1
Intermediate Stage---Level Shifter
6
1
Output Stage---Push-Pull
6
1
Packaging and Pinouts
7
2
Packaging
7
1
Combining Symbol and Pinout
8
1
How to Identify or Order an Op Amp
9
1
The Identification Code
9
1
Order Number Example
10
1
Second Sources
10
1
Breadboarding Op Amp Circuits
11
2
The Power Supply
11
1
Breadboarding Suggestions
11
1
Problems
12
1
First Experiences with An Op Amp
13
31
Learning Objectives
13
1
Introduction
14
1
Op Amp Terminals
14
4
Power Supply Terminals
15
1
Output Terminal
16
1
Input Terminals
16
1
Input Bias Currents and Offset Voltage
17
1
Open-Loop Voltage Gain
18
2
Definition
18
1
Differential Input Voltage, Ed
18
1
Conclusions
19
1
Zero-Crossing Detectors
20
1
Noninverting Zero-Crossing Detector
20
1
Inverting Zero-Crossing Detector
21
1
Positive- and Negative-Voltage-Level Detectors
21
1
Positive-Level Detectors
21
1
Negative-Level Detectors
21
1
Typical Applications of Voltage-Level Detectors
21
6
Adjustable Reference Voltage
21
1
Sound-Activated Switch
22
2
Light Column Voltmeter
24
2
Smoke Detector
26
1
Voltage Reference ICs
27
2
Introduction
27
1
Ref-02
27
1
Ref-02/Voltage Level Detector Applications
27
2
Signal Processing with Voltage-Level Detectors
29
3
Introduction
29
1
Sine-to-Square Wave Converter
29
1
Sawtooth-to-Pulse Wave Converter
29
1
Quad Voltage Comparator, LM339
30
2
Computer Interfacing with Voltage-Level Detectors
32
5
Introduction
32
1
Pulse-Width Modulator, Noninverting
33
2
Inverting and Noninverting Pulse-Width Modulators
35
2
A Pulse-Width Modulator Interface to a Microcontroller
37
1
Op Amp Comparator Circuit Simulation
38
6
Introduction
38
1
Creating, Initializing, and Simulating a Circuit
38
3
Problems
41
3
Inverting and Noninverting Amplifiers
44
40
Learning Objectives
44
1
Introduction
45
1
The Inverting Amplifier
45
7
Introduction
45
1
Positive Voltage Applied to the Inverting Input
45
2
Load and Output Currents
47
1
Negative Voltage Applied to the Inverting Input
48
1
Voltage Applied to the Inverting Input
49
2
Design Procedure
51
1
Analysis Procedure
51
1
Inverting Adder and Audio Mixer
52
3
Inverting Adder
52
1
Audio Mixer
53
1
DC Offsetting an AC Signal
53
2
Multichannel Amplifier
55
1
The Need for a Multichannel Amplifier
55
1
Circuit Analysis
55
1
Design Procedure
56
1
Inverting Averaging Amplifier
56
1
Noninverting Amplifier
57
4
Circuit Analysis
57
2
Design Procedure
59
2
Voltage Follower
61
3
Introduction
61
1
Using the Voltage Follower
62
2
The ``Ideal'' Voltage Source
64
2
Definition and Awareness
64
1
The Unrecognized Ideal Voltage Source
64
1
The Practical Ideal Voltage Source
65
1
Precise Voltage Sources
66
1
Noninverting Adder
66
1
Single-Supply Operation
67
2
Difference Amplifiers
69
2
The Subtractor
70
1
Inverting-Noninverting Amplifier
71
1
Designing a Signal Conditioning Circuit
71
5
PSpice Simulation
76
8
Inverting Amplifier---DC Input
76
1
Inverting Amplifier---AC Input
77
1
Inverting Adder
78
1
Noninverting Adder
79
1
Problems
80
4
Comparators and Controls
84
34
Learning Objectives
84
1
Introduction
85
1
Effect of Noise on Comparator Circuits
85
2
Positive Feedback
87
3
Introduction
87
1
Upper-Threshold Voltage
88
1
Lower-Threshold Voltage
88
2
Zero-Crossing Detector with Hysteresis
90
1
Defining Hysteresis
90
1
Zero-Crossing Detector with Hysteresis as a Memory Element
91
1
Voltage-Level Detectors with Hysteresis
91
5
Introduction
91
1
Noninverting Voltage-Level Detector with Hysteresis
92
2
Inverting Voltage-Level Detector with Hysteresis
94
2
Voltage-Level Detector with Independent Adjustment of Hysteresis and Center Voltage
96
3
Introduction
96
2
Battery-Charger Control Circuit
98
1
On-Off Control Principles
99
1
Comparators in Process Control
99
1
The Room Thermostat as a Comparator
100
1
Selection/Design Guideline
100
1
An Independently Adjustable Setpoint Controller
100
4
Principle of Operation
100
1
Output-Input Characteristics of an Independently Adjustable Setpoint Controller
100
1
Choice of Setpoint Voltages
101
1
Circuit for Independently Adjustable Setpoint Voltage
102
2
Precautions
104
1
IC Precision Comparator, 111/311
104
2
Introduction
104
1
Output Terminal Operation
104
1
Strobe Terminal Operation
104
2
Biomedical Application
106
2
Window Detector
108
1
Introduction
108
1
Circuit Operation
108
1
Propagation Delay
108
3
Definition
108
2
Measurement of Propagation Delay
110
1
Using PSpice to Model and Simulate Comparator Circuits
111
7
Simulation of the Zero-Crossing Detector with Hysteresis
111
2
Window Detector
113
2
Problems
115
3
Selected Applications of op Amps
118
33
Learning Objectives
118
1
Introduction
119
1
High-Resistance DC Voltmeter
119
2
Basic Voltage-Measuring Circuit
119
1
Voltmeter Scale Changing
120
1
Universal High-Resistance Voltmeter
121
2
Circuit Operation
121
1
Design Procedure
122
1
Voltage-to-Current Converters: Floating Loads
123
2
Voltage Control of Load Current
123
1
Zener Diode Tester
123
1
Diode Tester
123
2
Light-Emitting-Diode Tester
125
1
Furnishing a Constant Current to a Grounded Load
126
4
Differential Voltage-to-Current Converter
126
1
Constant-High-Current Source, Grounded Load
127
1
Interfacing a Microcontroller Output to a 4- to-20-mA Transmitter
128
1
Digitally Controlled 4- to 20-mA Current Source
129
1
Short-Circuit Current Measurement and Current-to-Voltage Conversion
130
2
Introduction
130
1
Using the Op Amp to Measure Short-Circuit Current
130
2
Measuring Current from Photodetectors
132
1
Photoconductive Cell
132
1
Photodiode
133
1
Current Amplifier
133
1
Solar Cell Energy Measurements
134
3
Introduction to the Problems
134
1
Converting Solar Cell Short-Circuit Current to a Voltage
135
1
Current-Divider Circuit (Current-to-Current Converter)
136
1
Phase Shifter
137
2
Introduction
137
1
Phase-Shifter Circuit
138
1
Temperature-to-Voltage Converters
139
1
AD590 Temperature Transducer
139
1
Celsius Thermometer
140
1
Fahrenheit Thermometer
140
1
Integrators and Differentiators
140
6
Integrators
141
1
Servoamplifier
142
2
Differentiators
144
2
PSpice Simulation
146
5
Problems
148
3
Signal Generators
151
36
Learning Objectives
151
1
Introduction
152
1
Free-Running Multivibrator
152
4
Multivibrator Action
152
2
Frequency of Oscillation
154
2
One-Shot Multivibrator
156
4
Introduction
156
1
Stable State
156
1
Transition to the Timing State
157
1
Timing State
157
2
Duration of Output Pulse
159
1
Recovery Time
159
1
Triangle-Wave Generators
160
5
Theory of Operation
160
2
Frequency of Operation
162
1
Unipolar Triangle-Wave Generator
163
2
Sawtooth-Wave Generator
165
5
Circuit Operation
165
1
Sawtooth Waveshape Analysis
165
1
Design Procedure
165
2
Voltage-to-Frequency Converter
167
1
Frequency Modulation and Frequency Shift Keying
167
1
Disadvantages
168
2
Balanced Modulator/Demodulator, the AD630
170
1
Introduction
170
1
Input and Output Terminals
170
1
Input-Output Waveforms
170
1
Precision Triangle/Square-Wave Generator
170
2
Circuit Operation
170
2
Frequency of Oscillation
172
1
Sine-Wave Generation Survey
172
1
Universal Trigonometric Function Generator, the AD639
173
2
Introduction
173
1
Sine Function Operation
173
2
Precision Sine-Wave Generator
175
4
Circuit Operation
175
3
Frequency of Oscillation
178
1
High Frequency Waveform Generator
178
1
PSpice Simulation of Signal Generator Circuit
179
8
Free-Running Multivibrator
179
2
One-Shot Multivibrator
181
1
Bipolar Triangle-Wave Generator
182
1
Unipolar Triangle-Wave Generator
183
2
Problems
185
2
Op Amps with Diodes
187
29
Learning Objectives
187
1
Introduction to Precision Rectifiers
188
1
Linear Half-Wave Rectifiers
189
5
Introduction
189
1
Inverting Linear Half-Wave Rectifier, Positive Output
190
2
Inverting Linear Half-Wave Rectifier, Negative Output
192
1
Signal Polarity Separator
193
1
Precision Rectifiers: The Absolute-Value Circuit
194
4
Introduction
194
1
Types of Precision Full-Wave Rectifiers
195
3
Peak Detectors
198
2
Positive Peak Follower and Hold
198
2
Negative Peak Follower and Hold
200
1
AC-to-DC Converter
200
3
AC-to-DC Conversion or MAV Circuit
200
2
Precision Rectifier with Grounded Summing Inputs
202
1
AC-to-DC Converter
203
1
Dead-Zone Circuits
203
5
Introduction
203
1
Dead-Zone Circuit with Negative Output
203
2
Dead-Zone Circuit with Positive Output
205
3
Bipolar-Output Dead-Zone Circuit
208
1
Precision Clipper
208
1
Triangular-to-Sine Wave Converter
208
1
PSpice Simulation of Op Amps with Diodes
209
7
Linear Half-Wave Rectifier
209
2
Precision Full-Wave Rectifier
211
2
Mean-Absolute-Value Amplifier
213
2
Problems
215
1
Differential, Instrumentation, and Bridge Amplifiers
216
36
Learning Objectives
216
1
Introduction
217
1
Basic Differential Amplifier
217
4
Introduction
217
2
Common-Mode Voltage
219
1
Common-Mode Rejection
220
1
Differential versus Single-Input Amplifiers
221
2
Measurement with a Single-Input Amplifier
221
1
Measurement with a Differential Amplifier
222
1
Improving the Basic Differential Amplifier
223
3
Increasing Input Resistance
223
1
Adjustable Gain
223
3
Instrumentation Amplifier
226
3
Circuit Operation
226
2
Referencing Output Voltage
228
1
Sensing and Measuring with the Instrumentation Amplifier
229
4
Sense Terminal
229
1
Differential Voltage Measurements
230
1
Differential Voltage-to-Current Converter
231
2
The Instrumentation Amplifier as a Signal Conditioning Circuit
233
2
Introduction to the Strain Gage
233
1
Strain-Gage Material
233
1
Using Strain-Gage Data
234
1
Strain-Gage Mounting
235
1
Strain-Gage Resistance Changes
235
1
Measurement of Small Resistance Changes
235
3
Need for a Resistance Bridge
235
1
Basic Resistance Bridge
236
1
Thermal Effect on Bridge Balance
237
1
Balancing a Strain-Gage Bridge
238
1
The Obvious Technique
238
1
The Better Technique
238
1
Increasing Strain-Gage Bridge Output
239
2
Practical Strain-Gage Application
241
2
Measurement of Pressure, Force, and Weight
243
1
Basic Bridge Amplifier
243
5
Introduction
243
1
Basic Bridge Circuit Operations
244
1
Temperature Measurement with a Bridge Circuit
245
3
Bridge Amplifiers and Computers
248
1
Adding Versatility to the Bridge Amplifier
248
4
Grounded Transducers
248
1
High-Current Transducers
248
1
Problems
249
3
DC Performance: Bias, Offsets, and Drift
252
22
Learning Objectives
252
1
Introduction
253
1
Input Bias Currents
254
1
Input Offset Current
255
1
Effect of Bias Currents on Output Voltage
256
3
Simplification
256
1
Effect of (-) Input Bias Current
256
2
Effect of (+) Input Bias Current
258
1
Effect of Offset Current on Output Voltage
259
2
Current-Compensating the Voltage Follower
259
1
Current-Compensating Other Amplifiers
260
1
Summary on Bias-Current Compensation
260
1
Input Offset Voltage
261
3
Definition and Model
261
1
Effect of Input Offset Voltage on Output Voltage
262
1
Measurement of Input Offset Voltage
262
2
Input Offset Voltage for the Adder Circuit
264
1
Comparison of Signal Gain and Offset Voltage Gain
264
1
How Not to Eliminate the Effects of Offset Voltage
265
1
Nulling-Out Effect of Offset Voltage and Bias Currents
265
2
Design or Analysis Sequence
265
1
Null Circuits for Offset Voltage
266
1
Nulling Procedure for Output Voltage
267
1
Drift
267
2
Measurement of Offset Voltage and Bias Currents
269
1
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
270
1
Power Supply Rejection Ratio
271
3
Problems
272
2
AC Performance: Bandwidth, Slew Rate, Noise
274
20
Learning Objectives
274
1
Introduction
275
1
Frequency Response of the Op Amp
275
4
Internal Frequency Compensation
275
1
Frequency-Response Curve
276
1
Unity-Gain Bandwidth
277
1
Rise Time
278
1
Amplifier Gain and Frequency Response
279
5
Effect of Open-Loop Gain on Closed-Loop Gain of an Amplifier, DC Operation
279
2
Small-Signal Bandwidth, Low- and High-Frequency Limits
281
1
Measuring Frequency Response
282
1
Bandwidth of Inverting and Noninverting Amplifiers
282
1
Finding Bandwidth by a Graphical Method
283
1
Slew Rate and Output Voltage
284
5
Definition of Slew Rate
284
1
Cause of Slew-Rate Limiting
285
1
Slew-Rate Limiting of Sine Waves
285
3
Slew Rate Made Easy
288
1
Noise in the Output Voltage
289
2
Introduction
289
1
Noise in Op Amp Circuits
289
1
Noise Gain
290
1
Noise in the Inverting Adder
290
1
Summary
290
1
Loop Gain
291
3
Problems
292
2
Active Filters
294
36
Learning Objectives
294
1
Introduction
295
1
Basic Low-Pass Filter
296
3
Introduction
296
1
Designing the Filter
297
2
Filter Response
299
1
Introduction to the Butterworth Filter
299
1
-40-dB/Decade Low-Pass Butterworth Filter
300
2
Simplified Design Procedure
300
2
Filter Response
302
1
-60-dB/Decade Low-Pass Butterworth Filter
302
3
Simplified Design Procedure
302
2
Filter Response
304
1
High-Pass Butterworth Filters
305
7
Introduction
305
1
20-dB/Decade Filter
306
2
40-dB/Decade Filter
308
1
60-dB/Decade Filter
309
2
Comparison of Magnitudes and Phase Angles
311
1
Introduction to Bandpass Filters
312
3
Frequency Response
312
1
Bandwidth
313
1
Quality Factor
314
1
Narrowband and Wideband Filters
314
1
Basic Wideband Filter
315
1
Cascading
315
1
Wideband Filter Circuit
315
1
Frequency Response
315
1
Narrowband Bandpass Filters
316
3
Narrowband Filter Circuit
317
1
Performance
317
1
Stereo-Equalizer Octave Filter
318
1
Notch Filters
319
1
Introduction
319
1
Notch Filter Theory
320
1
120-Hz Notch Filter
320
2
Need for a Notch Filter
320
1
Statement of the Problem
321
1
Procedure to Make a Notch Filter
321
1
Bandpass Filter Components
321
1
Final Assembly
322
1
Simulation of Active Filter Circuits Using PSpice
322
8
Low-Pass Filter
323
2
High-Pass Filter
325
1
Bandpass Filter
326
2
Problems
328
2
Modulating, Demodulating, and Frequency Changing with the Multiplier
330
32
Learning Objectives
330
1
Introduction
331
1
Multiplying DC Voltages
331
3
Multiplier Scale Factor
331
1
Multiplier Quadrants
332
2
Squaring a Number or DC Voltage
334
1
Frequency Doubling
334
3
Principle of the Frequency Doubler
334
1
Squaring a Sinusoidal Voltage
335
2
Phase-Angle Detection
337
3
Basic Theory
337
2
Phase-Angle Meter
339
1
Phase Angles Greater than ±90°
340
1
Analog Divider
340
2
Finding Square Roots
342
1
Introduction to Amplitude Modulation
342
6
Need for Amplitude Modulation
342
1
Defining Amplitude Modulation
343
1
The Multiplier Used as a Modulator
343
1
Mathematics of a Balanced Modulator
343
2
Sum and Difference Frequencies
345
2
Side Frequencies and Sidebands
347
1
Standard Amplitude Modulation
348
4
Amplitude Modulator Circuit
348
3
Frequency Spectrum of a Standard AM Modulator
351
1
Comparison of Standard AM Modulators and Balanced Modulators
352
1
Demodulating an AM Voltage
352
4
Demodulating a Balanced Modulator Voltage
356
1
Single-Sideband Modulation and Demodulation
356
1
Frequency Shifting
356
2
Universal Amplitude Modulation Receiver
358
4
Tuning and Mixing
358
2
Intermediate-Frequency Amplifier
360
1
Detection Process
360
1
Universal AM Receiver
360
1
Problems
361
1
Integrated-Circuit Timers
362
38
Learning Objectives
362
1
Introduction
363
1
Operating Modes of the 555 Timer
364
1
Terminals of the 555
365
6
Packaging and Power Supply Terminals
365
1
Output Terminal
366
1
Reset Terminal
366
1
Discharge Terminal
366
1
Control Voltage Terminal
366
1
Trigger and Threshold Terminals
366
2
Power-on Time Delays
368
3
Free-Running or Astable Operation
371
4
Circuit Operation
371
1
Frequency of Oscillation
371
2
Duty Cycle
373
1
Extending the Duty Cycle
374
1
Applications of the 555 as an Astable Multivibrator
375
3
Tone-Burst Oscillator
375
2
Voltage-Controlled Frequency Shifter
377
1
One-Shot or Monostable Operation
378
3
Introduction
378
2
Input Pulse Circuit
380
1
Applications of the 555 as a One-Shot Multivibrator
381
3
Water-Level Fill Control
381
1
Touch Switch
381
1
Frequency Divider
382
1
Missing Pulse Detector
383
1
Introduction to Counter Timers
384
1
The XR 2240 Programmable Timer/Counter
385
4
Circuit Description
385
1
Counter Operation
386
2
Programming the Outputs
388
1
Timer/Counter Applications
389
5
Timing Applications
389
1
Free-Running Oscillator, Synchronized Outputs
390
1
Binary Pattern Signal Generator
391
1
Frequency Synthesizer
392
2
Switch Programmable Timer
394
1
Timing Intervals
394
1
Circuit Operation
394
1
PSpice Simulation of 555 Timer
394
6
Astable or Free-Running Multivibrator
394
3
Tone-Burst-Control Circuit
397
2
Problems
399
1
Digital-to-Analog Converters
400
30
Learning Objectives
400
1
Introduction
401
1
DAC Characteristics
401
7
Resolution
401
4
Offset Error
405
1
Gain Error
406
2
Monotonic
408
1
Relative Accuracy
408
1
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Process
408
4
Block Diagram
408
1
R-2R Ladder Network
409
1
Ladder Currents
410
1
Ladder Equation
411
1
Voltage Output DACs
412
2
Multiplying DAC
414
1
8-Bit Digital-to-Analog Converter; the DAC-08
414
6
Power Supply Terminals
414
1
Reference (Multiplying) Terminal
414
2
Digital Input Terminals
416
1
Analog Output Currents
416
1
Unipolar Output Voltage
417
1
Bipolar Analog Output Voltage
418
2
Microprocessor Compatibility
420
1
Interfacing Principles
420
1
Memory Buffer Registers
420
1
The Selection Process
420
1
AD558 Microprocessor-Compatible DAC
421
4
Introduction
421
2
Power Supply
423
1
Digital Inputs
423
1
Logic Circuitry
423
1
Analog Output
423
2
Dynamic Test Circuit
425
1
Serial DACs
425
5
Introduction
425
1
Interfacing a Serial DAC to a Microprocessor
426
1
Assembly Language Programming
427
1
Problems
428
2
Analog-to-Digital Converters
430
23
Learning Objectives
430
1
Introduction
431
1
ADC Characteristics
431
4
Resolution
431
2
Quantization Error
433
1
Offset Error
433
1
Gain Error
434
1
Linearity Error
435
1
Integrating ADC
435
5
Types of ADCs
435
1
Principles of Operation
436
1
Signal Integrate Phase, T1
436
1
Reference Integrate Phase, T2
436
2
The Conversion
438
1
Auto-Zero
439
1
Summary
439
1
Successive Approximation ADC
440
2
Circuit Operation
440
2
Successive Approximation Analogy
442
1
Conversion Time
442
1
ADCs for Microprocessors
442
1
AD670 Microprocessor-Compatible ADC
443
4
Analog Input Voltage Terminals
445
1
Digital Output Terminals
445
1
Input Option Terminal
445
1
Output Option Terminal
445
1
Microprocessor Control Terminals
445
2
Testing the AD670
447
1
Flash Converters
447
3
Principles of Operation
447
1
Conversion Time
447
3
Frequency Response of ADCs
450
3
Aperture Error
450
1
Sample-and-Hold Amplifier
450
1
Problems
451
2
Power Supplies
453
28
Learning Objectives
453
1
Introduction
454
1
Introduction to the Unregulated Power Supply
454
3
Power Transformer
454
2
Rectifier Diodes
456
1
Positive versus Negative Supplies
456
1
Filter Capacitor
457
1
Load
457
1
DC Voltage Regulation
457
4
Load Voltage Variations
457
1
DC Voltage Regulation Curve
458
1
DC Model of a Power Supply
459
2
Percent Regulation
461
1
AC Ripple Voltage
461
3
Predicting AC Ripple Voltage
461
2
Ripple Voltage Frequency and Percent Ripple
463
1
Controlling Ripple Voltage
464
1
Design Procedure for a Full-Wave Bridge Unregulated Supply
464
4
Design Specification, General
464
4
Bipolar and Two-Value Unregulated Power Supplies
468
1
Bipolar or Positive and Negative Power Supplies
468
1
Two-Value Power Supplies
469
1
Need for Voltage Regulation
469
1
The History of Linear Voltage Regulators
469
1
The First Generation
469
1
The Second Generation
470
1
The Third Generation
470
1
Linear IC Voltage Regulators
470
2
Classification
470
1
Common Characteristics
470
2
Self-Protection Circuits
472
1
External Protection
472
1
Ripple Reduction
472
1
Power Supply for Logic Circuits
472
1
The Regulator Circuit
472
1
The Unregulated Supply
473
1
±15-V Power Supplies for Linear Application
473
2
High-Current ±15-V Regulator
473
1
Low-Current ±15-V Regulator
474
1
Unregulated Supply for the ±15-V Regulators
475
1
Adjustable Three-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator (the LM317HV) and Negative Voltage Regulator (the LM337HV)
475
1
Load Voltage Adjustment
475
3
Adjusting the Positive Regulated Output Voltage
475
2
Characteristics of the LM317HVK
477
1
Adjustable Negative-Voltage Regulator
477
1
External Protection
477
1
Adjustable Laboratory-Type Voltage Regulator
478
1
Other Linear Regulators
479
2
Problems
479
2
Appendix 1 μA741 Frequency-Compensated Operational Amplifier
481
10
Appendix 2 LM301 Operational Amplifier
491
7
Appendix 3 LM311 Voltage Comparator
498
7
Appendix 4 LM117 3-Terminal Adjustable Regulator
505
6
Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems
511
7
Bibliography
518
3
Index
521