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Tables of Contents for Selection
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Introduction
xvii
6
Acknowledgments
xxiii
1. Simple Selection
2
33
1. RNA viruses are the simplest self-replicators.
2
1
2. Exponential growth can be maintained by serial transfer.
3
1
3. Replication is always imprecise.
4
2
4. Imprecise replication leads to differential growth.
6
1
5. Selection acts directly on rates of replication.
7
3
6. Selection may act indirectly on other characters.
10
1
7. The indirect response to selection is often antagonistic.
11
1
8. Evolution typically involves a sequence of small alterations.
12
6
9. The evolution of increased complexity is a contingent process.
18
2
10. Very improbable structures readily arise through the cumulation of small alterations.
20
4
11. Competitors are an important part of the environment.
24
1
12. Evolution through selection is a property of self-replicators.
25
1
13. Selection can be used to engineer the structure of molecules.
26
2
14. Self-replicating algorithms evolve in computers.
28
5
15. Evolution through selection is governed by a set of general principles.
33
2
2. Selection on a Single Character
35
214
16. Phenotypic evolution is caused by the selection of genes as replicators.
35
1
17. The replication of genes depends on the reproduction of organisms.
36
1
18. Characters evolve through their effect on reproduction.
36
3
2.A. Single Episode of Selection
19. The unit event of evolution is an episode of variation followed by an episode of selection.
39
2
20. Evolution is caused by a "lack of fit" between population and environment.
41
3
21. Mutation is not appropriately directed.
44
5
22. Most mutations have slightly deleterious effects.
49
1
23. Adaptedness can be maintained only if mutation is rare.
50
2
24. Mutation provides a continual input of variation in fitness on which selection acts.
52
2
25. Selection preserves adaptedness by preventing the spread of mildly deleterious mutations.
54
2
26. Characters other than fitness have intermediate optima.
56
3
27. Stabilizing selection reduces variation around the optimal value of a character.
59
3
28. Bacterial screens and crop trials are simple examples of directional selection.
62
2
29. Artificial selection allows characters to be selected directly.
64
4
30. Selection is a commonplace process in natural populations.
68
6
2.B. Selection of Pre-existing Variation
31. The unit process of evolution is the substitution of a superior variant.
74
4
32. Allelic substitution can occur very rapidly when selection is intense.
78
6
33. The rate of evolution is limited by the "cost of selection."
84
2
34. Selection in natural populations is usually weak.
86
1
35. Weak selection is easily capable of driving observed rates of allele substitution.
86
1
36. Only mutations of small effect are likely to be beneficial.
87
3
37. Evolution through weak selection is hampered by sampling error.
90
5
38. Selection is less effective in small populations.
95
1
39. New beneficial mutations are often lost by chance.
96
3
40. Weak selection is readily detected by selection experiments.
99
7
41. The response to selection can be predicted from first principles.
106
5
42. The sorting limit in asexual populations is the limit of extant variation.
111
4
43. The rate of sorting is proportional to the amount of variation in fitness.
115
3
44. The rate of evolution of a character is proportional to its genetic covariance with fitness.
118
2
45. In sexual populations, genes that are transmitted independently can be selected independently.
120
5
46. Selection for genes with independent effects is more effective when they are transmitted independently.
125
3
47. Selection in the diploid phase is complicated by allelic interaction.
128
6
48. Genetic combination and recombination can be selected.
134
6
49. The short-term response to selection in sexual populations can be predicted from their genetic structure.
140
14
50. The sorting limit in sexual populations is the limit of potential variation.
154
8
2.C. Continued Selection
51. Adaptedness may be lost through continued internal or external deterioration.
162
1
52. Deleterious mutations may continue to accumulate in small asexual populations.
162
5
53. The population is a small sample of potential variation.
167
1
54. Adaptation may be inaccessible because intermediate types are inferior.
167
7
55. Stasis is likely to be a frequent outcome of selection.
174
1
56. Selection may be effective only when the environment changes gradually.
175
1
57. On long time scales, repeated sorting results in cumulation.
175
1
58. Continued change occurs through successive substitution.
176
7
59. A single clone of microbes will readily respond to natural selection.
183
5
60. Phosphate utilization in experimental populations of yeast evolves by successive substitution.
188
2
61. Continued selection causes adaptation to novel environments.
190
2
62. The limits to continued artificial selection are not well defined.
192
7
63. New and unexpected constraints may set a limit to artificial selection.
199
5
64. The cumulative response to continued selection may generally be nonlinear.
204
2
65. The variance among replicate selection lines increases with time.
206
6
66. The genetic basis of adaptation may differ among replicate selection lines.
212
8
67. The contingent nature of evolution can be investigated through the behavior of replicate selection lines.
220
3
2.D. The Evolution of Novelty
68. Very simple and very complex structures are connected by a series of intermediate forms.
223
4
69. Bacterial metabolism is a classical example of a complex, integrated structure.
227
2
70. Novel metabolic abilities can evolve through exaptation following deregulation and amplification.
229
3
71. Duplication followed by divergence leads to increased metabolic diversity.
232
1
72. Intermediary metabolism is thought to have evolved in a retrograde fashion.
232
2
73. Utilization of the fucose pathway for propanediol metabolism is an example of exaptation.
234
1
74. The catabolism of exotic five-carbon sugars demonstrates the importance of deregulation and duplication.
235
5
75. A new Beta-galactosidase may represent a case of duplication followed by divergence.
240
1
76. New amidases evolve through a sequence of structural and regulatory changes.
241
2
77. The contingent evolution of novelty implies parsimony.
243
2
78. Duplication followed by divergence of cells and tissues may give rise to novel kinds of organisms.
245
1
79. Fusion is another route to novelty.
246
1
80. Evolution is not necessarily progressive.
247
2
3. Selection on Several Characters
249
152
81. Selection directed towards any given character is likely to cause changes in other characters.
249
4
82. The correlated response can be predicted from the genetic structure of the base population.
253
3
83. Indirect selection can be used if the correlated response exceeds the direct response.
256
1
84. Gradual evolution requires dissociability.
256
2
85. Index selection is used to maximize the response of a character in the presence of genetic covariance.
258
3
86. Genetic covariance may change through selection or recombination.
261
1
87. Recombination may itself evolve as a correlated response to selection.
262
6
88. The correlated response to selection may involve shifts in character correlations and the divergence of replicate lines.
268
4
3.A. Selection Acting on Different Components of Fitness
89. Continued selection on one character causes a general regress of others.
272
3
90. Components of fitness are antagonistic because resources are finite.
275
2
91. The correlation between fitness components depends on the balance between variance in allocation and variance in productivity.
277
6
92. Selection produces negative correlations between fitness components.
283
4
93. Optimal patterns of reproduction evolve as compromises.
287
4
94. The schedule of reproduction evolves through the antagonism of prospective components of fitness.
291
3
95. Optimal schedules of reproduction evolve as compromises.
294
2
96. Age-specific selection causes changes in the schedule of reproduction.
296
5
97. Selection for early reproduction reduces vigor later in life.
301
2
98. Selection generally favors early vigor because the force of natural selection weakens with age.
303
3
99. Senescence evolves because selection favors postponing deleterious gene expression.
306
7
3.B. Selection in Several Environments
100. The individual and the lineage have characteristic scales in space and time.
313
3
101. The physical environment varies at all scales in space and time.
316
5
102. Genotypes vary in their response to the environment.
321
11
103. The outcome of selection depends on the environment in which it is practised.
332
5
104. Specific adaptation causes a correlated increase of fitness in similar environments.
337
3
105. The evolution of specialization is obstructed by immigration.
340
2
106. Rare specialists will seldom evolve.
342
1
107. The evolution of generalization is obstructed by functional interference.
343
4
108. Diversity is limited by the extent of the market.
347
1
109. Specialized types may accumulate conditionally deleterious mutations.
348
3
110. Sorting or continued selection leads to negative correlation for site-specific fitness.
351
5
111. Diversity can be maintained through selection in spatially heterogeneous environments.
356
2
112. Transplant experiments show that selection in spatially heterogeneous environments leads to local adaptation.
358
11
113. Stable genotypes are favored when selection and environmental effects act in opposite directions.
369
9
114. Spatial variation supports specialization; temporal variation favors the evolution of generalization.
378
4
3.C. Selection Acting at Different Levels
115. Any entity with heritable properties can be selected.
382
8
116. Organisms may be selected to produce variation among their progeny on which selection can act.
390
2
117. Selection among lineages weakens with time scale.
392
9
4. Autoselection
401
38
118. The replication system itself is vulnerable to genetic parasites.
401
2
4.A. Elements That Utilize Existing Modes of Transmission
119. Mutator genes occasionally spread in asexual populations.
403
3
120. Autonomously replicating elements, such as plasmids, can spread among sexual lineages.
406
4
121. Transposable elements may be selected through the mutations they cause.
410
8
122. Transposons spread infectiously in sexual populations.
418
4
4.B. Elements That Modify Existing Modes of Transmission
123. The sexual cycle is often modified by elements able to elevate their own rate of transmission.
422
1
124. Elements that encode sexual fusion will invade asexual populations.
423
1
125. In many sexual populations, autoselection favors genes that suppress sex.
423
2
126. Some genes distort meiotic segregation so as to favor their own transmission.
425
2
127. Genes that are transmitted by only one gamete gender may be selected to bias sexual development.
427
12
5. Social Selection
439
144
5.A. Selection Within a Single Uniform Population: Density-Dependent Selection
128. Relative fitness may change with population density.
439
3
129. Characteristic genotypes evolve in starving populations.
442
2
130. The genotype able to subsist on the lowest ration prevails in density-regulated populations.
444
6
131. Efficient and profligate resource use are antagonistic adaptations.
450
11
5.B. Selection Within a Single Diverse Population: Frequency-Dependent Selection
132. Genotypes themselves constitute environmental factors.
461
3
133. Neighbors affect relative fitness.
464
1
134. Social interactions lead to frequency-dependent selection.
465
5
135. The outcome of selection in mixed cultures may not be predictable from the behavior of pure cultures.
470
3
136. Selection for seed yield in pure cultures may cause enhanced self-facilitation.
473
2
137. The social relations between strains can be altered through selection.
475
1
138. A population may become specifically adapted to the presence of another species.
476
4
139. Two interacting species may become mutually modified.
480
2
140. It is doubtful whether arbitrary strains of the same species often become mutually modified.
482
4
141. Social relations may evolve in self-perpetuating mixtures.
486
6
142. Whether mixed cultures become uniform or diverse depends on the relative strength of self-inhibition.
492
11
143. The selection of social behavior leads to an Evolutionarily Stable State.
503
3
144. Cooperative behavior may be selected during repeated contests.
506
3
145. Fitness in mixed cultures is not necessarily transitive.
509
5
146. Intransitive social relations destabilize genotype frequencies through time-lagged frequency-dependent selection.
514
7
5.C. Several Populations: Kin Selection and Group Selection
147. Selection among clones favors nepotism.
521
2
148. Selection among sexual kin is depreciated by their partial relatedness.
523
2
149. Selection among groups of unrelated individuals may favor cooperation.
525
1
150. Altruism evolves through group selection only if alternative social types are overdispersed among groups.
526
6
151. The Most Productive Population is not necessarily the ESS.
532
1
152. Arbitrary mixtures tend to be more productive than the mean of their components but not as productive as the best component.
533
9
5.D. Coevolution
153. There are powerful and highly specific interactions between organisms that are not ecologically equivalent.
542
6
154. Interactions between ecologically non-equivalent organisms are the main source of time-lagged frequency-dependent selection.
548
5
155. Continued selection may lead to an arms race.
553
5
156. Neighbors that constitute mutually renewable resources evolve to become partners.
558
2
157. Vertically transmitted symbionts evolve to become closely integrated partners.
560
6
158. Resistance and virulence are costly.
566
6
159. Genetically uniform populations of hosts elicit epidemics of short-lived pathogens.
572
6
160. The environment always tends to deteriorate.
578
5
6. Sexual Selection
583
54
161. Sexual selection is competition among gametes for fusion.
583
1
162. Sexual selection and natural selection are antagonistic.
584
3
163. The life cycle is balanced between sexual selection and natural selection.
587
5
164. Gender and species are the contexts for sexual selection and natural selection.
592
4
165. Fixed permanent gender prevents self-fertilization.
596
1
166. The opposition of sexual and natural selection causes the evolution of the male-female distinction.
597
2
167. Sexual selection favors the minority gender.
599
3
168. Competition among sons or daughters causes diminishing returns for allocation to that gender.
602
3
169. Sexual selection modifies the type whose gametes are present in excess.
605
2
170. Mating success can be increased or decreased through artificial sexual selection.
607
3
171. Sexual competition among members of the same gender leads to the exaggeration of secondary sexual structures.
610
4
172. Adaptive divergence is hindered by outcrossing.
614
2
173. Sexual isolation may evolve directly through selection for specialization or habitat choice.
616
6
174. Mating preferences may evolve as a correlated response to powerful divergent selection.
622
5
175. Sexual isolation may evolve as a correlated response to divergent selection in separate lines.
627
10
General Bibliography
637
2
References
639
44
Index of Organisms
683
4
General Index
687